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THE  FUNDAMENTALS 


LIVE  STOCK  JUDGING 


SELECTION 


BY 

ROBERT  S.  CURTIS,  B.S.A. 

ASSOCIATE    CHIEF,   ANIMAL   INDUSTRY    DIVISION,    ANIMAL   HUSBANDMAN,    BEEF 

CATTLE    AND    SHEEP    INVESTIGATIONS,    NORTH    CAROLINA   AGRICULTURAL 

EXPERIMENT   STATION,    WEST   RALEIGH,    NORTH   CAROLINA 


ILLUSTRATED  WITH   180  ENGRAVINGS 


LEA  &  FEBIGER 

PHILADELPHIA  AND   NEW  YORK 


Copyright 

LEA  &  FEBIGER 

1915 


TO 
STUDENTS  AND  STOCKMEN 


No  detail  is  too  small  to  be  studied  for  truth." 

Stevenson. 


PREFACE. 


The  recent  progress  of  the  teaching  of  Animal  Husbandry, 
especially  live  stock  judging  and  selection,  commends  this 
division  of  the  subject  to  a  full  modern  treatise  dealing  with 
all  domestic  animals.  Rapid  advancement  in  special  fields 
of  production  and  selection,  and  the  addition  of  new  phases 
of  animal  judging,  have  furnished  much  new  material  for 
the  work. 

In  developing  the  subject  various  viewpoints  ranging 
from  that  of  the  extensive  live  stock  breeder  to  the  city 
fancier  must  of  necessity  be  considered.  Not  only  the  col- 
lege student  and  the  professional  judge,  but  also  the  live 
stock  breeder,  general  farmer,  salesman,  buyer,  and  the 
city  fancier  of  stock  at  one  time  or  another  inspects  animals 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  critic.  He  thus  becomes  the 
judge  whether  in  the  show  ring  or  in  the  field,  and  when 
the  term  "judge"  is  referred  to  in  the  text  it  should  be 
understood  that  it  is  not  specifically  used.  In  certain 
instances  attention  may  be  directed  to  the  student  or  the 
professional  judge  while  in  other  cases  any  of  the  above 
meanings  may  be  inferred.  Any  individual  who  selects 
stock  is  placed  in  the  position  of  the  judge,  specifically  speak- 
ing, and  he  should,  therefore,  be  so  considered  in  construing 
the  various  discussions  herein  given. 

The  improvements  of  this  volume  upon  former  presenta- 
tions of  the  subject  consist  in  logical  groupings  of  the  sub- 
ject matter,  as  well  as  many  entirely  new  features  of  special 

(V) 


VI  PREFACE 

significance.  These  are  brought  out  mainly  in  the  first 
five  chapters  deahng  with  the  methods  and  practices  and 
general  principles  applicable  to  the  judging  and  selection 
of  all  classes  of  live  stock.  In  the  fifth  chapter  information 
is  included  relative  to  important  factors  or  problems  of  the 
individual,  the  breeds  and  the  selection  of  the  same,  other- 
wise than  by  an  external  examination  on  which  student  and 
show  ring  judging  is  necessarily  based.  One  chapter  is 
devoted  to  the  jack,  jennet,  and  mule,  since  the  latter  has 
become  of  great  economic  importance  and  former  discus- 
sions of  the  subject  have  been  incomplete. 

A  complete  and  convenient  reference  to  breed  descrip- 
tions through  photographs  and  concise  breed  characteristics 
is  included  and  supplemented  with  the  latest  standard  of 
excellence  and  scale  of  points  of  each  of  the  important  breeds. 
Market  and  show  ring  considerations  are  discussed  fully 
because  of  the  tendency  toward  the  more  practical  phases 
of  commercial  or  market  live  stock  judging.  The  additions 
include  a  number  of  the  newer  breeds  of  live  stock  which 
have  recently  come  into  prominence  and  therefore  deserve 
comment. 

The  material  included  herein,  especially  the  breed  studies, 
has  in  certain  instances  been  submitted  to  prominent  authori- 
ties to  obtain  accurate  and  impartial  criticism.  It  has  been 
the  aim  of  the  author  to  mention  only  the  more  important 
phases  of  the  subject,  leaving  the  detailed  or  exhaustive  infor- 
mation for  reference  reading.  It  can  be  readily  realized  that 
no  single  volume  of  this  nature  can  exhaust  the  information 
available.  The  work  is  intended  primarily  for  students, 
farmers  and  stockmen  who  wish  to  become  familiar  with 
the  methods  and  practices  in  judging  the  pure  breeds  and 
market  and  show  classes  of  live  stock.  The  subject  matter 
has  been  arranged  systematically  to  facilitate  the  study  of 


PREFACE  Vll 

particular  phases  in  the  judging  and  selection  of  the  various 
breeds,  types  and  classes.  The  author  hopes  that  the  work 
will  fit  the  needs  of  the  class  room,  the  stockman  and  the 
general  farmer. 

He  desires  to  acknowledge  credit  to  the  many  books  and 
periodicals  on  Animal  Husbandry  from  which  valuable  help 
and  suggestions  were  obtained  in  the  preparation  of  this 
work.  He  is  especially  indebted  to  Carl  W.  Gay,  University 
of  Pennsylvania;  C.  S.  Plumb,  Ohio  State  University; 
the  late  John  A.  Craig,  formerly  of  Oklahoma  Agricultural 
College;  Robert  Wallace,  University  of  Edinburgh;  M.  H. 
Reynolds,  University  of  Minnesota;  and  F.  W.  Wilder, 
Packing  Plant  Superintendant,  Chicago,  111.,  for  the  help 
and  suggestions  obtained  from  their  works. 

General  acknowledgement  is  hereby  given  to  all  other 
sources  from  which  helpful  information  was  obtained.  The 
contributions  from  the  various  books,  pamphlets,  bulletins, 
and  periodicals  dealing  with  the  subject  of  farm  animals  has 
been  invaluable  in  the  preparation  of  this  work. 

Acknowledgement  is  due  Robert  F.  Hildebrand,  Chicago, 
111.,  and  Schrieber  and  Sons,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  who,  under 
the  direction  of  the  author  prepared  most  of  the  illustrations, 
which  are  such  a  valuable  source  of  information  in  a  work  of 
this  nature.  They  therefore  deserve  the  special  touch  which 
the  animal  photographer  only  can  give  them  by  securing 
the  natural  pose  and  position  of  the  subject. 

R.  S.  C. 

North  Carolina  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
West  Raleigh,  N.  C,  1915. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

The  Live  Stock  Industry  17 

CHAPTER  II. 
Relation  of  Structure  to  Animal  Judging 24 

CHAPTER  III. 

The  Manifestations  of  Form,  Function,  and  Capacity       .       28 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Methods  and  Practices  in  Judging  and  Selection    ...       35 

CHAPTER  V. 

Factors   and   Principles   Applicable   to   the   Judging   and 

Selection  of  Live  Stock         57 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Judging  Horses,  Fundamental  Considerations     ....       89 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Judging  Draft  Horses 113 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
Judging  Light  Horses 133 

CHAPTER  IX. 
Judging  Jacks,  Jennets,  and  Mules 182 


X  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  X. 
Judging  Beef  and  Dual  Purpose  Cattle  221 

CHAPTER  XI. 
Judging  Dairy  Cattle 271 

CHAPTER  XII. 
Judging  Swine 317 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
Judging  Sheep 361 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

Application  of  Judging   and   Selection  to   Breeding   and 

Finishing  Farm  Animals 423 

Bibliography 426 

Appendix 429 

Index 445 


LIVE  STOCK  Jl  DGIXCx  AND  SELECTION. 


CHAPTER   I. 
THE  LIVE  STOCK  INDUSTRY. 

Method  of  Development. — The  subject  of  live  stock  judging 
has  become  of  widespread  importance  not  only  through  the 
teacliing  of  these  courses  in  agricultural  colleges,  high 
schools  and  other  institutions  but  also  through  the  increased 
demand  for  knowledge  among  farmers  who  anticipate 
following  some  phase  of  live  stock  work.  Keen  competition 
among  breeders  and  vendors  of  market  animals  has  placed 
the  subject  on  a  high  plane.  The  real  constructive  breeder, 
whose  work  is  generally  unappreciated,  has  perfected  beauty 
and  utility  of  form  which  is  responsible  in  the  main  for 
revolutionizing  the  live  stock  breeding  industry.  Compara- 
tively few  people  appreciate  the  improvement  which  has 
been  made  in  animal  form  thereby  owing  to  the  priority 
of  original  development.  A  full  realization  of  the  im- 
provement may  be  readily  recognized,  however,  by  com- 
paring the  original  long-horn  steer  with  the  symmetrical, 
deep-set,  well-developed,  compact  form  of  the  modern 
bullock. 

This  change  from  the  lank,  rangy  animal  to  the  close 
compact  form  has  been  accomplished  step  by  step.  It 
represents  the  work  of  more  than  a  century  and  the  guidance 
of  men  who  had  clear  mental  pictures  of  what  the  ideal 
animal  should  be.  It  represents  the  guidance  of  men  who 
have,  through  their  own  originality,  principally,  been  able  to 
grasp,  direct  and  mould  the  consequent  forces  of  heredity. 
2  (17)         ^ 


18  THE  LIVE  STOCK  INDUSTRY 

This  work  represents  the  result  of  judgment  and  selection 
of  animal  form  through  which  a  gradual  and  persistent 
improvement  has  been  made  possible.  It  may  be  com- 
pared to  two  animals  with  widely  varying  marks  of  merit, 
the  one  representing  the  acme  of  modern  development, 
and  the  other  an  animal  of  the  same  breed  a  decade  prior. 
These  visual  pictures  enabled  the  breeder  to  foresee  what 
proper  moulding  of  animal  form  would  bring  a  decade  hence. 
The  breeders  who,  through  their  superlative  genius,  brought 
about  these  improvements  are  among  the  highest  and  most 
renowned  judges  of  animal  form.  They  not  only  painted 
visual  pictures  of  what  art  later  accomplished,  but  they 
were  able  to  recognize  readily  the  good  and  the  bad  and 
thereby  eliminate  the  unpromising  from  their  future  breeding 
work.  This  is  the  same  principle  by  which  a  modern 
judge  selects  the  ideal  type  in  a  class  and  graduates  the 
remainder  of  the  animals  in  their  respective  positions  or 
order  of  merit. 

Fields  for  Development. — The  subject  of  live  stock  judging 
and  selection  may  be  divided  into  two  distinct  divisions, 
the  one  representing  the  pure  breeds  of  live  stock  used 
for  foundation  or  reproductive  and  improvement  purposes; 
and  the  other  animals  possessing  commercial  attributes  as 
found  in  these  breeds,  either  in  the  pure  bred,  cross  bred  or 
grade  form  when  grouped  in  their  proper  type  or  market 
classes.  Breeds  represent  the  product  of  definite  foundation 
blood,  soil,  climate,  feeds,  certain  objects  or  purposes  and 
the  fancy  of  the  various  constructive  breeders.  While 
in  most  instances  in  the  various  types  and  classes  of  stock 
several  breeds  may  conform  closely  to  a  specific  purpose, 
almost  invariably  there  are  special  characteristics  which 
make  one  or  the  other  excel  under  changed  environment, 
purpose  or  condition.  They  may  do  likewise  from  the  stand- 
point of  market  requirements  which  should  be  the  nucleus 
of  all  live  stock  improvement.  It  is  this  last  analysis  of 
an  animal  in  ascribing  its  fitness  for  work  or  for  the  block 
in  which  the  majority  of  stockmen  are  interested.  Breed 
type  is  important  to  the  producer  of  pure  bred  breeding 
stock,  but  market  type  is  of  greater  importance  to  the  pro- 


IMPORTANCE  OF  KEEX  JUDGING  AND  SELECTION      19 

ducer  of  market  animals.  These  two  special  phases  of  ani- 
mal improvement  have  opened  two  distinct  fields  for  work 
and  consequently  a  need  for  definitely  arranged  information 
on  the  subject. 

Importance  of  Keen  Judging  and  Selection. — The  rapid 
development  of  the  live  stock  industry  for  special  productive 
purposes  and  for  farm  land  improvement  makes  it  not  only 
desirable  but  profitable  to  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  live 
stock  judging  and  selection.  The  importance  of  this  state- 
ment can  be  more  fully  realized  after  becoming  acquainted 
with  the  magnitude  and  monetary  value  of  the  industry. 
The  loss  from  an  individual  animal  through  inferior  breeding, 
careless  selection,  or  improper  feeding  may  be  small,  and 
therefore  not  seriously  affect  the  breeder  or  owner.  If 
this  loss  was  occasioned,  however,  in  a  large  herd  over  a 
long  period  of  years,  it  would  mean  the  loss  of  a  substantial 
sum.  Considering  that  faults  in  animal  form  can  be  largely 
overcome  by  wise  judging  and  selection  without  entailing 
any  appreciable  additional  outlay  of  money,  the  importance 
of  the  subject  should  be  doubly  emphasized  or  appreciated. 
The  decrease  in  the  finished  weight  of  fat  cattle  at  nine  of  the 
leading  live  stock  markets  in  1912  shows  an  average  shortage 
of  IS  pounds  per  head.  Based  on  the  total  number  of  animals 
shipped  to  these  markets,  there  was  a  total  decrease  of 
144,793,620  pounds  of  beef.  This  loss  could  have  been 
largely  overcome  by  either  closer  selection  or  better  methods 
of  feeding.  \Yhile  other  causes  may  have  been  responsible 
for  the  condition,  it  serves  to  illustrate  the  importance  of 
keen  judging  and  selection.  Based  on  all  the  cattle  slaugh- 
tered for  a  period  of  ten  or  twenty  years  the  figures  would  be 
almost  insurmountable. 

It  would  be  exen  more  important  to  remedy  the  defects  of 
the  breeding  animal  than  in  the  market  animal  because  the 
former  would  continue  to  reproduce  the  undesirable  char- 
acteristics. This  factor  of  inferiority  would  be  of  great 
importance,  however,  even  in  market  animals  for  the  lack 
of  only  a  few  pounds  gain,  due  either  to  faulty  selection  or 
feeding  of  the  individual,  would  mean  a  large  loss  in  the 
aggregate. 


20 


THE  LIVE  STOCK  INDUSTRY 


Value  of  Domestic  Animals. — The  magnitude  of  the  live 
stock  industry  can  best  be  understood  by  citing  the  figures 
giving  the  value  of  these  animals  on  tlW  farms  of  the  United 


POSSIBILITIES  OF  IXDUSTRY  21 

States.     The  Census  for  1910  gives  the  following  value  of 
the  various  kinds  of  live  stock  maintained : 

Kind  of  stock.  Number.  Value. 

Horses 19,833,113  S2,083,588,195 

Jacks,  jennets,  and  mules       .      .  4,315,737  538,591,975 

Cattle 61,803,866  1,499,523,607 

Sheep 52,447,861  232,841,585 

Swine 58,185,676  399,338,308 

Total 196,586,253         $4,753,883,670 

These  figures  are  sufficient  to  indicate  the  vast  economic 
importance  of  the  live  stock  industry.  Live  stock  judging 
and  selection  has  maintained  an  important  part  in  developing 
the  industry  to  its  present  magnitude  and  importance, 
both  from  the  standpoint  of  numbers  and  value.  How 
much  greater  the  value  would  have  been  through  keener 
methods  and  practices  in  judging  and  selection,  it  would  be 
difficult  to  ascertain.  Suffice  it  to  say,  however,  that  the 
increase  in  quality  which  might  have  been  attained  by  better 
methods  and  practices  would  have  reduced  the  cost  of  keep 
materially  as  measured  in  terms  of  the  finished  value  of  the 
product.  As  this  is  the  problem  in  which  the  live  stock 
husbandman  is  interested,  the  application  of  better  methods 
would  not  only  increase  the  quality  of  the  product  from  a 
connoisseur's  standpoint,  but  add  profit  as  well  to  the 
industry. 

Possibilities  of  Industry. — The  figures  given  above  illus- 
trate the  possibility  of  securing  increased  revenue  by  more 
careful  judging  and  selection  and  better  ultimate  handling 
and  management.  The  opinion  is  thoroughly  conversant 
and  borne  out  by  facts  that  it  does  not  require  any  more 
to  maintain  an  animal  with  a  high  order  of  merit  than  it 
does  an  inferior  one.  Based  on  this  statement,  an  average 
increase  in  weight  of  one  pound  on  all  kinds  of  domestic 
animals  hereafter  considered,  exclusive  of  horses,  mules,  and 
asses,  would  mean  an  increase  of  172,437,403^  pounds  of 
edible  meats.  It  is  readily  imaginable  how  this  increase  could 
be  obtained  by  closer  selection  alone.     From  these  figures  it 

1  United  States  Census,  1910. 


22         ^  THE  LIVE  STOCK  INDUSTRY 

is  not  difficult  to  perceive  the  wonderful  possibilities  of  close 
judging  and  selection  of  animal  form.  The  average  value  of 
horses  per  head  in  1910  was  $105.06/  and  while  this  includes 
young  stock,  it  would  be  possible  to  increase  their  value  50 
per  cent,  by  more  careful  judging,  selection,  and  ultimate 
management.  Other  classes  of  animals  are  equally  suscep- 
tible to  the  same  amount  of  improvement  under  like 
conditions. 

It  is  recognized  that  it  is  impossible  to  ascribe  all  of  the 
possible  improvement  in  weight,  form,  and  quality  or  other 
attributes  to  keen  judging  and  selection,  yet  breeders  and 
students  of  animal  form  readily  recognize  its  importance. 
The  foundation  for  profit  in  live  stock  farming  is  substantially 
based  on  the  type  of  animal  selected  for  breeding,  work, 
or  for  direct  meat  productive  purposes.  Ill-bred  animals, 
which  means  careless  selection  largely,  are  attributed  as 
being  generally  unprofitable,  either  for  breeding  or  feeding 
purposes.  Close  scrutinized  judgment  in  selection  could 
not  remove  all  the  faults  of  animal  form  at  once  but  its 
continuance  would  be  clearly  apparent  for  a  substantial 
period  of  years.  Proper  application  of  the  principles  of 
judging  and  selection  would  not  only  remedy  many  destroy- 
ing influences  in  live  stock  production,  but  it  would  increase 
or  improve  almost  without  apparent  cost  the  world's  total 
supply  of  meat,  milk  and  wool,  and  form,  quality,  and  effi- 
ciency in  work  and  pleasure  animals. 

Faculties  and  Requirements  in  Judging. — There  are  two 
special  faculties  necessary  to  select  or  judge  accuratel}^  a 
class  of  live  stock.  These  are,  first,  a  proper  knowledge  of 
what  constitutes  the  utility  points  which  are  judged,  either 
from  a  breeding  standpoint,  or  from  that  of  market  and 
show  requirements;  and  second,  a  quick  and  keen  observance 
of  both  the  major  and  minor  faults  in  animal  form.  Craig 
states  that  "When  a  distinct  ideal  based  on  the  best  types 
and  their  highest  qualities  has  been  formed  in  the  mind,  and 
this  is  supported  by  a  discriminating  eye,  it  is  but  another 
step  to  render  a  correct  judgment." 

1  United  States  Census,  1910. 


FACULTIES  AND  REQUIREMENTS  IN  JUDGING     23 

This  increased  activity  and  keen  competition  in  modern 
judging  is  due  to  the  success  which  constructive  breeders 
have  attained  as  students  of  Hve  stock  problems.  The 
science  of  breeding,  feeding,  and  development  was  formerly 
considered  too  simple  for  a  study  of  the  scientific  roads  of 
improvement.  Live  stock  breeders  and  feeders,  however, 
are  awakening  to  the  fact  that  it  takes  brain  as  well  as  brawn 
to  produce  prize-winning  animals.  Not  since  the  days  of 
the  Collings,  Booth,  Bates  and  Cruikshank,  have  stockmen 
realized  the  depth  of  the  problems  in  live  stock  selection, 
breeding,  and  feeding. 

The  real  student  of  judging  and  selection  must  be 
practical  and  keen  sighted  to  attain  success,  either  as  a  judge 
or  as  a  breeder.  Since  this  is  the  final  test  of  the  breeder's 
art,  the  student  of  judging  and  selection  must  have  clearly 
in  mind  the  ideal  animal  for  the  various  purposes  intended  in 
the  breeding  or  commercial  world.  Not  until  he  has  dis- 
tinctly mastered  these  details  of  utility,  and  becomes  keenly 
alive  to  the  minor  differences  in  all  parts  of  animal  form, 
can  he  expect  to  be  classed  as  a  dependable  live  stock  critic. 


CHAPTER   II. 

RELATION  OF  STRUCTURE  TO  ANIMAL  JUDGING. 

In  animal  judging  there  are  special  fundamental  attributes 
or  attainments,  the  value  of  which  must  be  fixed  or  measured 
in  terms  of  the  animal  mechanism  to  be  defined  or  studied. 
Without  a  knowledge  of  these  fundamental  problems  and 
their  relation  to  the  particular  type  of  animal  involved 
judging  and  selection  of  live  stock  would  be  at  best  a  hap- 
hazard undertaking.  The  following  representation  of  these 
.fundamentals  is  not  exhaustive,  yet  it  emphasizes  the  impor- 
tance of  having  a  knowledge  of  the  specialized  foundation 
structure  and  its  correlated  parts. 

PURPOSE  OF  ANIMAL  MECHANISM. 

The  purpose  of  animal  mechanism  varies  widely.  Animals 
are  produced  for  draft,  speed,  show,  pleasure,  meat,  milk, 
and  wool.  In  certain  instances  these  purposes  or  uses 
may  be  combined  in  the  same  animal,  as  described  subse- 
quently. In  the  first  four  instances,  wherein  special  reference 
is  made  to  the  horse,  the  general  form  of  the  machine  is 
the  same,  although  the  purpose  or  adaptation  is  at  a  wide 
variance.  The  difference  is  largely  in  the  details  of  structure, 
the  mastery  of  which  constitutes  one  of  the  main  funda- 
mentals of  animal  judging. 

Meat  is  ordinarily  obtained  from  three  sources  in  domesti- 
cated animals.  However,  that  of  the  best  quality  is  a  pro- 
duct of  an  animal  bred  specially  for  the  purpose.  The  beef 
animal,  the  fat  and  bacon  hog,  and  the  mutton  sheep  produce 
what  may  be  termed  a  specific  product.  Milk  is  obtained 
from  an  animal  differing  more  widely  in  form  and  mechanism 
than  any  of  those  classed  as  food-producing  animals.  Meat 
obtained  from  a  milk-producing  animal  may  be  classed  as  a 
(24) 


RELATIOX  OF  PERFORMANCE  AND  PRODUCTION     25 

by-product.  Although  a  large  proportion  of  meat  products 
are  ultimately  obtained  from  this  source,  the  dairy  animal 
possesses  a  specific  type  and  has  a  specific  function  in  milk 
production.  Its  purpose  must  therefore  be  so  defined,  and  any 
surplus  obtained  in  meat  or  otherwise  should  be  classed  as  a 
by-product.  In  the  dual  purpose  animal,  the  meat  and  milk- 
giving  functions  are  supposed  to  be  ecjually  correlated.  The 
degree  of  manifestation  in  either  is  arbitrary  with  the 
breeder  who  may  change  the  ratio  of  production  by  a  simple 
modification  of  the  type  through  the  natural  source  of 
selection  and  reproduction.  The  sheep  may  be  classed  as  a 
dual  purpose  machine  in  one  instance  and  as  a  specific 
machine  in  the  other.  The  mutton  breeds  of  sheep  are 
bred  for  a  specific  purpose,  although  their  wool  is  an  mipor- 
tant  by-product.  In  the  strictly  wool-producing  breeds,  the 
mutton  is  a  by-product  being  analogous  in  this  respect  to 
meat  from  a  dairy  animal. 

The  animal  mechanism  must  of  necessity  vary  greatly  to^ 
perform  or  manifest  these  various  phases  of  production. 
The  relation  between  the  machine  and  production  is  intimate 
and  it  is  only  by  having  a  definite  knowledge  of  the  former 
that  conformity  to  purpose  or  the  power  of  production  can 
be  accurately  measured. 

RELATION  OF  MECHANISM  TO  PERFORMANCE  AND 
PRODUCTION. 

The  form  which  an  animal  assumes  is  an  embodiment  of 
the  inner  or  unseen  structure,  more  specifically  of  the  bone 
and  muscle  development.  It  is  these  two  fundamentals 
that  directly  or  indirectly  determine  size,  shape,  locomotion, 
compactness  and  disengagement  or  looseness  of  structure. 
The  draft  horse  is  low  set,  massive,  and  compact.  This 
condition  is  a  direct  result  of  the  structural  units  in  the 
mechanism.  Every  condition  of  development  is  a  manifesta- 
tion of  what  the  completed  animal  will  be.  The  broad 
head,  the  short  thick  neck,  the  broad  breast  and  deep  chest, 
the  wide,  deep  body  and  the  full  massive  quarters  are  funda- 
mental in  the  aquisition  of  weight,  which  is  one  of  the  chief 


26     RELATION  OF  STRUCTURE  TO  ANIMAL  JUDGING 

requisites  of  draft  horse  attainments.  These  quaHfications 
are  direct  exponents  of  the  principal  nuclear  structure  which 
is  the  bony  framework. 

The  speed  horse  is  the  direct  opposite  of  the  draft  animal. 
Both  the  bones  and  muscles  are  longer,  attaining  a  smaller 
diameter  and  therefore  a  greater  manifestation  of  speed, 
which  is  directly  associated  with  qualifications  which  possess 
or  exhibit  reach  or  extension.  The  structural  development 
of  other  types  of  horses  are  modifications  or  combinations 
of  the  two  types  described.  The  degree  of  modification 
measures  their  utility,  whether  they  still  retain  draft  or 
speed  qualifications  or  assume  entirely  new  attainments 
characteristic  of  other  distinct  types  of  horses. 

Likewise  the  beef  and  dairy  animal,  the  fat  and  bacon 
hog,  and  mutton  and  wool-producing  sheep  are  measured  in 
value  by  their  conformity  to  type  standards  which  have 
been  determined  the  most  economical  for  productive  pur- 
poses. The  mechanism  which,  grossly  defined,  includes  the 
bone  and  muscle  development,  determines  the  value  of  an 
animal.  This  is  true,  however,  only  when  the  more  vital 
functions  are  working  in  perfect  harmony  with  these  two 
fundamentals  of  animal  formation.  Without  proper  nerve 
force  or  development,  circulatory,  digestive  or  reproductive 
functions,  the  gross  materials  which  give  size,  shape,  and 
locomotion  would  be  of  no  value. 

Gross  Structural  Material. — The  bones  and  muscles  are 
substantially  the  foundation  upon  which  all  animals  are 
constructed.  It  is  important,  therefore,  to  have  a  clear 
conception  of  the  part  which  these  gross  structural  materials 
play  in  giving  size  and  shape  to  the  animal.  The  ultimate 
value  of  a  dressed  animal,  for  example,  is  directly  dependent 
on  the  amount  and  quality  of  edible  products  obtained.  The 
framework  of  the  horse  is  equally  important,  as  strength, 
durability,  and  longevity  are  closely  associated  with  the  at- 
tainments in  this  respect  other  than  the  part  which  they  play 
in  the  formation  of  size  and  shape  in  the  finished  animal. 

The  muscles  of  an  animal  are  directly  related  to  the 
attainments  of  power,  speed,  and  meat  production,  but 
more  specifically  to  the  latter.     Short,  thick  muscles  char- 


RELATIOX  OF  PERFORMANCE  AXD  PRODUCT lOX     27 

acterize  the  draft  animal;  long  and  thin  muscles  the  speed 
animal.  The  fundamental  purpose  of  the  muscular  system 
is  to  operate  the  bones.  The  secondary  function  is  to  give 
shape  and  a  certain  degree  of  finish  to  the  animal.  A  careful 
study  of  the  skeleton  and  muscles  will  reveal  that  much  of 
the  animal  form  is  determined  by  the  mass  of  muscles, 
especially  in  certain  parts.  In  other  regions  animal  form  is 
characterized  largely  by  the  development  of  the  bony  frame- 
work. A  knowledge  of  these  relations  is  of  extreme  im- 
portance to  the  student  of  animal  form. 

Special  and  Combined  Functions. — Specific  functions  char- 
acterize animals  which  are  bred  for  one  definite  purpose, 
although  they  may  produce  liberally  in  other  directions. 
Animals  of  the  special  type  are  easily  depicted  or  measured 
in  performance  or  productive  value.  Every  part  of  their 
structure  is  perfected  toward  one  definite  end.  Every  attain- 
ment in  the  structural  development  is  a  manifestation  of 
some  definite  purpose.  Where  there  is  thus  no  division 
of  energy  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  make  an  alignment  of 
values. 

The  dual  purpose  animal  is  bred  for  two  pm-poses,  both 
of  which  must  be  embodied  in  the  animal  form.  This 
represents  an  average  development,  theoretically,  or  a  com- 
bination of  two  special  functions.  For  example,  beef  and 
milk,  and  mutton  and  wool  represent  the  two  commonly 
accepted  dual  purpose  functions  or  standards.  The  equation 
of  value  must  be  measured  in  such  animals  by  their  specific 
structural  development.  Although  it  is  recognized  that  high 
milk  production,  extreme  speed,  or  unusual  block  tests  are 
antagonized  in  two  purpose  animals  because  of  the  alteration 
of  structm-e  necessary  to  harmonize  or  equalize  these  two 
purposes,  they  have  a  place  in  animal  production.  Student 
judging  should  so  depict  every  purpose,  relation,  structural 
development  and  special  and  combined  functions  that  a 
perfectly  clear  analysis  of  these  factors  may  be  made  before 
undertaking  a  decision  in  any  class  of  animals.  Otherwise 
gross  errors  may  occur  under  the  best  of  reasoning  power. 
A  broad  working  foundation,  an  accepted  ideal,  and  a  logical 
mind  are  herein  extremely  essential. 


CHAPTER     III. 

THE  MANIFESTATIONS  OF  FORM,  FUNCTION, 
AND  CAPACITY. 

The  practical  stockman  is  not  directly  interested  with  the 
intricate  mechanism  and  development  of  the  animal  organ- 
ism, yet  there  are  certain  manifestations  of  form,  function, 
and  capacity  which  stamp  the  value  of  an  animal  in  its 
various  phases  of  use  and  development.  The  value  of  an 
animal  to  the  stockman  is  largely  determined  by  the  forma- 
tion of  the  anatomy  of  the  bony  framework,  the  muscular 
development,  the  digestive  system,  the  circulatory  system, 
the  mammary  organs,  the  reproductive  system,  and  the 
nervous  development.  Because  of  the  close  association  of 
these  attributes,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  stockman,  a 
deficiency  or  weakness  in  development  of  any  one  would 
retard  gro^vth  and  normal  development  in  the  individual 
and  sacrifice  what  otherwise  might  be  cardinal  points  in 
breed,  type  or  class  attainments.  An  analysis,  therefore, 
of  their  utility  value  is  important. 

Bony  Framework. — The  bony  framework  is  a  measure  of 
the  height  and  weight  or  scale  which  will  be  attained  by  an 
animal.  Unless  an  animal  possesses  a  foundation  or  frame- 
work whereon  the  muscular  system  may  normally  develop  the 
ultimate  size  at  maturity-  will  be  materially  decreased.  The 
sleek-bodied  colt,  the  short,  round  body  of  the  calf  and 
the  small,  early  maturing  hog  are  indicative  of  insuffi- 
cient capacity  as  associated  with  bone  development.  The 
size  which  an  animal  attains  can  be  no  greater  than  the 
maximum  number  of  structural  units  which  are  normally 
present  in  the  framework.  An  animal  may  be  forced  on  the 
right  kinds  of  feeds  and  thus  induce  greater  development. 
However,  such  a  method  of  feeding  would  not  always  be 
(28) 


MUSCULAR  DEVELOPMENT  29 

prudent  or  profitable.  In  selecting  live  stock,  therefore, 
special  consideration  should  be  given  to  the  indications  of 
normal  development  at  maturity. 

The  size  of  the  bone  as  exemplified  in  the  canon  of  the 
horse,  and  in  the  leg  of  the  steer,  the  hog,  and  the  sheep  are 
directly  associated  with  the  size  and  weight  of  an  animal 
at  maturity.  The  animal  which  inclines  to  fatten  early 
in  life  before  normal  development  has  been  reached  does 
not  possess  the  structural  units  to  perfect  normal  maturity 
upon  which  the  profits  from  live  stock  usually  depend.  In- 
dications of  the  probable  development  are  in  evidence  in 
the  condition  which  an  animal  assumes  as  related  to  bone, 
muscle,  and  fat  formation.  The  young  animal  or  the 
matured  animal  low  in  condition  indicate  their  probable 
maximum  attainments  by  the  character  of  the  framework. 
While  the  spare,  open  development  is  characteristic  only  of 
the  dairy  animal,  a  certain  degree  of  it  is  necessary  in  the 
other  types  in  order  that  they  may  attain  the  maximum 
degree  of  size,  form  and  finish.  Early  fattening  qualities, 
except  under  certain  specialized  conditions,  such  as  in  the 
baby  beef  animal  or  other  early  market  maturing  quali- 
fications, as  fixed  by  farm  practice,  are  antagonistic  to 
maximum  development.  Animal  attainments  relating  to  size 
are  measured  almost  entirely  by  the  foundation  structure 
imposed  in  the  bony  framework. 

Muscular  Development. — With  the  exception  of  the  dairy 
cow  and  wool  sheep,  the  value  of  domestic  animals  is  directly 
or  indirectly  dependent  on  the  degree  of  muscle  formation. 
The  value  of  the  beef  animal,  the  mutton  sheep,  and  the 
fat  or  bacon  hog  is  directly  dependent  on  this  attribute. 
The  value  of  the  draft  horse,  heavy  and  light  harness  horses, 
saddle  horses  and  ponies  are  dependent  on  this  qualifica- 
tion, yet  in  each  the  manifestation  of  it  is  developed  in  a 
different  form  of  energy  or  work.  In  the  dairy  cow  and 
the  wool  sheep  the  muscular  development  is  of  secondary 
importance  because  the  usefulness  of  these  animals  is  meas- 
ured by  their  capacity  to  produce  products  not  dependent 
on  the  degree  of  muscle  formation.  The  dairy  cow  produces 
milk,  the  maximum  degree  of  muscle  and  fat   formation 


30  FORM,  FUNCTION,  AND  CAPACITY 

being  directly  antagonistic  to  the  maximum  degree  of  milk 
production.  The  wool  sheep  is  measured  in  value  by  its 
output  of  wool,  regardless  of  its  value  from  the  mutton 
standpoint.  The  value  of  the  horse  is  measured  in  terms  of 
muscular  development,  although  the  kind  of  work  and  its 
degree  of  attainment  is  greatly  different  from  that  expected 
in  meat-producing  animals.  The  character  of  the  muscular 
system  is  a  measure  of  work  in  some  form,  yet  association 
with  other  attributes  should  be  clearly  fixed  because  of  the 
final  balance  of  the  manifestations  enumerated  under  form, 
function,  and  capacity. 

Digestive  System. — The  digestive  system  of  an  animal  is 
of  specific  importance  because  an  animal  grows  and  becomes 
useful  to  a  degree  dependent  on  the  amount  of  food  consumed 
and  its  elaboration  or  manifestation  in  the  various  forms  of 
animal  energy,  whether  it  is  meat,  milk,  wool,  or  horse 
power.  The  measure  of  value  in  an  animal  is  therefore 
determined  by  the  digestive  capacity  to  a  degree  depending 
on  the  character  of  energy  to  be  produced.  The  manifesta- 
tion of  a  strong  digestive  system  is  evidenced  in  the  length, 
depth  and  width  of  the  barrel,  this  in  turn  being  influenced 
largely  by  the  maximum  degree  of  development  possible 
in  the  bony  framework.  The  direct  association  of  this 
attribute  with  constitution,  vigor,  and  general  capacity  is 
readily  apparent  from  an  analysis  of  these  various  factors 
in  detail. 

Circulatory  System. — The  bony  framework,  the  muscular 
development  and  the  digestive  system  constitute  the  gross 
attainments  necessary  for  an  animal  to  assume  shape  and 
continue  normal  development  when  properly  associated 
with  the  other  life-giving  functions.  From  the  stockman's 
point  of  view  there  is  nothing  more  important  than  the 
circulatory  system  on  which  life-giving  depends  directly, 
and  in  one  instance  the  development  of  a  specific  function, 
namely,  the  milk-giving  capacity  of  the  dairy  cow.  In 
formulating  the  value  of  a  dairy  animal  one  of  the  chief 
requisites  for  consideration  is  the  degree  of  development 
of  the  circulatory  system,  especially  as  evidenced  in  the 
mammary  system.     The  elaboration  of  milk  from  the  gross 


REPRODUCTIVE  SYSTEM  OR    BREEDING  CAPACITY     31 

food  products  to  the  finished  product  is  vitally  connected 
with  the  circulatory  system,  as  the  blood  carries  the  elements 
of  milk  elaboration.  The  stimulation  received,  therefore, 
from  the  blood  supply  measures  quite  accurately  the  capacity 
of  an  animal  and  the  profits  which  will  be  obtained  therefrom. 
Although  the  evidence  of  a  strong  blood  supply  is  especially 
significant  in  the  dairy  animal,  it  is  of  no  less  importance  in 
the  animal  which  is  used  for  draft,  light  harness  or  saddle 
work,  or  in  those  animals  which  are  used  directly  for  food- 
producing  purposes.  The  blood  supply  and  the  energy  which 
it  carries  in  the  way  of  assimilated  food  materials  is  all 
manifested  in  some  specific  way  no  matter  what  the  character 
of  work  to  be  performed.  The  amount  and  continuity  of 
work  is  thus  measured  by  the  circulatory  system  w^hich 
carries  the  elements  or  products  of  energy  to  the  specific 
place  of  use. 

Mammary  Organs. — The  mammary  organs  or  the  mam- 
mary glands  are  of  special  significance  in  the  dairy  cow 
wherein  stimulation  of  milk-giving  capacity  has  been  in- 
creased by  breeding,  selection,  and  by  the  administration 
of  proper  food  materials.  Although  it  is  in  the  dairy  animal 
that  the  most  vital  consideration  is  usually  given  to  the 
mammary  organs,  they  must,  of  necessity,  become  a  con- 
sideration, either  in  the  meat-giving  or  work-producing 
animals.  The  difference  in  the  degree  of  development  in 
these. three  broad  classes  of  animals  is  not  as  great  as  might 
be  first  suspected.  The  dairy  cow  is  measured  by  her  milk- 
giving  capacity,  the  meat-producing  animals  by  the  amount 
and  quality  of  the  meat  products  which  they  elaborate,  and 
the  work-producing  animals  by  the  quality  of  the  offspring 
as  suited  to  the  production  of  energy  or  work  in  their  various 
phases  of  development.  The  mammary  system  should  be 
considered,  therefore,  as  an  important  part  of  animal  attain- 
ments regardless  of  the  specific  use  of  the  product  obtained 
from  the  individual  or  future  generations. 

Reproductive  System  or  Breeding  Capacity. — The  measure 
of  value  in  a  breeding  animal  is  largely  centered  in  its  capacity 
to  reproduce  like  attainments  of  the  individual  in  question. 
The  reproductive  system,  therefore,  becomes  an  important 


32  FORM,  FUNCTION,  AND  CAPACITY 

problem  in  analyzing  animal  value.  The  breeding  animal 
should  clearly  indicate  its  capacity  for  the  reproduction  of 
not  only  its  attainments  as  a  pure  bred,  but  also  as  exemplified 
in  the  market  animal.  The  consideration  of  the  reproductive 
functions  from  the  standpoint  of  the  breeder  is  one  of  practical 
value.  In  making  a  study  of  the  individual  its  probable 
reproductive  powers  should  be  considered  in  conjunction 
with  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  animal  itself.  It  is  only  when 
these  two  factors  are  properly  correlated  that  a  breeding 
animal  can  transmit  to  its  maximum  capacity  the  qualities 
which  are  of  vital  importance  to  the  breeder  in  the  reproduc- 
tion of  pure  bred  animals  and  the  production  of  market 
individuals  with  an  outcome. 

Nervous  Development. — The  nervous  system  or  nervous 
development  of  an  animal  may  be  divided  into  the  nervous 
or  highly  organized,  the  lymphatic,  and  the  sluggish  tem- 
peraments. Each  of  the  three  is  characterized  in  various 
individuals  representing  the  breeds  of  domestic  animals. 
A  nervous  temperament  is  characteristic  of  the  dairy 
animal  in  which  all  of  the  energy  from  the  food  materials 
is  manufactured  into  milk  with  the  exception  of  that  used 
in  body  and  reproductive  maintenance.  The  typical  dairy 
cow  is  spare  and  lean  in  conformation,  as  this  condition  is 
evidence  that  the  food  is  being  used  as  indicated  above.  A 
highly  developed  nervous  organization  is  as  closely  associated 
with  maximum  milk  production  as  the  lymphatic  or  less 
active  temperament  is  associated  with  fat  production.  The 
two  are  antagonistic,  one  representing  the  result  of  elimina- 
tion, as  evidenced  in  high  milk  production,  and  the  other  in 
accumulation,  as  evidenced  in  muscle  and  fat  formation. 
Indication  that  food  is  being  so  used  is  as  much  a  part  of 
animal  attainments  as  a  strong,  healthy  digestive  or  cir- 
culatory system  on  which  life  directly  depends. 

The  sluggish  temperament  is  the  lowest  form  of  nervous 
development  and  one  which  should  not  be  directly  asso- 
ciated with  any  specific  type  of  animal.  Manifestation  of 
a  sluggish  temperament  is  an  attribute  not  to  be  desired. 
It  is  suggestive  of  lack  in  constitution,  a  weak  circulatory 
system,  and  improperly  associated  nerve  development.    The 


NERVOUS  DEVELOPMENT  33 

fat  animal  which  manifests  or  shows  a  sluggish  temperament 
may,  from  one  standpoint,  apparently  be  a  profitable  animal. 
When  balanced,  however,  with  the  other  attributes  of  chief 
importance  to  the  stockman,  the  animal  possessing  such  a 
quality  is  not  a  desirable  specimen  for  reproductive  or 
market  use.  The  lack  of  nerve  force  is  evidenced  in  one  way 
or  another  and  will  ultimately  depreciate  an  animal  in  value 
to  the  extent  of  the  insufficient  nerve  force  manifested. 


CHAPTERIV. 

METHODS  AND  PRACTICES  IN  JUDGING  AND 
SELECTION. 

Definition. — Live  stock  judging,  strictly  defined,  refers  to 
a  determination  of  the  value  of  a  single  animal  or  the  com- 
parative value  of  a  class  of  animals  for  a  specialized  purpose. 
The  individual  animal  ma}'  be  judged  in  a  similar  manner 
to  a  class  of  animals,  yet  the  student  in  so  doing  must  have 
learned  to  attain,  either  through  practical  experience  or 
college  training,  a  fixed  mental  picture  of  an  animal  which 
conforms  to  the  established  ideal  of  the  type  in  question. 
In  reality,  therefore,  one  animal  may  form  a  class  as  the 
ideal  animal,  or  a  standard  of  comparison  must  always  be 
clearly  fixed  in  the  mind  before  judging  or  fixation  of  value 
logically  begins.  In  judging  or  ranking  animals,  the  problem 
is  to  establish  a  rating  or  rank  according  to  the  conformity 
to  the  ideal,  and  from  this  affix  a  productive  or  market 
value,  the  latter  being  the  final  test  of  block  animals. 
Whether  the  animal  is  considered  from  the  standpoint  of 
breed,  show,  work,  or  for  the  block,  there- is  a  fixed  value 
which  depends  on  the  breeding,  individuality  and  the 
environment  to  which  the  animal  has  been  subjected. 
These  are  the  main  points  or  factors  of  development  with 
which  the  student  must  familiarize  himself  before  judging, 
in  its  strictest  sense  or  selection,  based  on  ancestry  and  per- 
formance records,  may  be  accurately  performed. 

Live  stock  judging,  broadly  defined,  may  be  considered 
from  the  standpoint  of  comparative  show  yard  placing,  where 
exterior  qualifications  or  characteristics  are  the  only  guides, 
or  from  the  standpoint  of  individual  herd  or  flock  merit 
based  both  on  individual  characteristics  and  performance 
records.     The  work  of  the  student,  in  making  comparative 

(35) 


36  METHODS  IN  JUDGING  AND  SELECTION 

or  show  yard  placings,  may  be  specifically  considered  animal 
judging,  his  opinion  being  based  solely  on  exterior  character- 
istics. The  work  of  actually  detecting  the  best  individuals 
in  the  herd  from  their  ancestry  and  actual  performance 
records  may  be  considered  animal  selection.  It  is  rather 
unfortunate,  especially  with  certain  classes  of  animals,  that 
the  latter  cannot  be  successfully  carried  out  in  show  ring 
judging.  In  facilitating  the  passing  of  judgment  on  animals, 
therefore,  the  student  judge  must  learn  to  detect  the  points 
which  indicate  value  for  special  productive  purposes^  The 
determination  of  the  value  of  animals  through  the  form  or 
conformation  lies  at  the  basis  of  successful  and  popularly 
so  termed  live  stock  judging. 

Objects. — The  main  objects  in  judging  live  stock  are 
twofold.  First,  the  detection  of  the  characteristics  which 
fit  animals  for  breeding  or  reproduction;  and  second,  for 
work,  broadly  defined,  or  for  the  block.  While  the  two 
purposes  are  in  a  sense  closely  related,  from  the  viewpoint 
of  the  judge,  there  are  important  difterences  which  should 
not  be  overlooked.  The  breeding  animal,  for  example,  should 
be  judged  from  the  standpoint  of  present  individual  excel- 
lence, and  the  likely  transmission  and  continuity  of  these 
characteristics  to  the  oft'spring.  In  judging  an  animal  for 
the  block,  any  future  usefulness  beyond  the  fattening  or 
finishing  period  may  be  entirely  disregarded,  since  the 
present  intrinsic  value  of  the  animal  to  the  butcher  is  the 
real  paramount  factor  for  consideration. 

Animal  Knowledge. — The  increasing  magnitude  of  student 
and  show  yard  judging  has  brought  into  employment  certain 
customs  in  establishing  the  value  or  rating  on  the  numerous 
classes  of  animals  coming  before  the  eye  of  the  judge.  While 
the  exterior  characteristics  are  not  absolutely  reliable 
guides,  more  especially  in  breeding  animals,  a  history  and 
knowledge  of  the  performance  of  other  similarly  made 
animals  and  keen  detection  of  their  merits  or  faults  will 
enable  the  student  to  form  very  accurate  conclusions  in 
the  judging  ring. 

In  judging  breeding  animals  there  is  no  absolute  assurance 
that  certain   desirable  characteristics  will  be  transmitted, 


IDEALS,  QUALIFICATIONS,   AND  CONSISTENCY     37 

Former  records  of  other  animals  of  like  conformation  must 
be  used  as  a  guide  or  basis  for  passing  judgment  or  opinion. 
This  is  in  reality  the  basis  of  all  live  stock  judging,  as  the 
accomplishments  of  one  animal  under  certain  known  con- 
ditions may  reasonably  be  expected  to  obtain  under  like 
conditions  in  other  instances.  If  it  were  not  for  this  infor- 
mation which  has  been  accumulated,  either  in  writing  or 
through  the  teaching  of  practical  stockmen  and  college 
live  stock  judges,  the  subject  would  not  have  attained  its 
present  magnitude  or  accuracy.  It  is  only  by  correlation 
of  individual  characteristics,  as  measured  by  the  success  of 
other  animals  and  actual  records,  that  any  assurance  may  be 
obtained  regarding  the  value  of  an  animal  as  a  breeder. 
When  judging  direct  fitness  for  the  block  or  for  dairy  purposes 
all  breeding  and  ancestral  records  may  be  disregarded  as  all 
practical  evidences  of  utility  and  quality  are  largely  visible 
on  the  exterior  of  the  animal.  This,  however,  has  been  made 
possible  only  by  careful  studies  of  the  conformation  of  work, 
milk,  and  meat-producing  qualities  of  other  similar  animals. 
Ideals,  Qualifications,  and  Consistency. — The  beginner  in 
live  stock  judging  must  necessarily  acquire  a  definite  working 
knowledge  of  the  principles  on  which  stock  judging  is  based. 
He  should  learn  the  peculiar  structural  form  of  the  various 
types,  breeds,  and  classes  by  studying  each  animal  individ- 
ually. By  so  doing,  he  is  soon  able  to  correlate  the  various 
parts  and  thereby  fix  the  individual  as  a  whole  in  its  relation 
as  applied  to  the  various  standards  of  excellence  employed. 
In  the  show  ring  the  method  of  procedure  is  different.  It 
is  not  a  question  necessarily  of  depicting  the  minuteness  of 
form,  or  becoming  acquainted  with  the  various  structural 
parts  or  units.  The  judge  of  long  experience  grasps  and 
analyzes  the  form  of  the  animal  or  animals  as  a  whole  and 
makes  the  alignment  according  to  merit  or  conformity  to  the 
standard  of  excellence  used  for  the  type  or  breed  in  question. 
The  requirements  are  that  the  animal  coming  closest  to  the 
ideal  standard  be  selected  to  head  the  class.  Thereafter, 
each  of  the  others  should  be  placed  according  to  the  degree 
of  conformity  with  the  animal  selected  as  possessing  the  most 
ideal  type  qualification. 


38  METHODS  IN  JUDGING  AND  SELECTION 

A  judge  should  have  a  clear,  concise  idea  of  each  standard 
with  which  he  is  expected  to  compare  and  place  competing 
animals.  Unless  he  is  thoroughly  acquainted  with  these 
standards  it  is  impossible  to  determine  which  of  the  animals 
in  the  class  should  be  taken  for  the  ideal  or  standard.  One< 
of  the  frequent  troubles  encountered  at  the  smaller  live 
stock  shows  and  fairs  throughout  the  country  is  the  lack  of 
an  adequate  classification  providing  for  the  separation  of 
each  distinct  type  and  breed.  Wherever  such  a  condition 
exists  there  can  be  no  true  standard,  and  consequently  no 
justification  in  the  methods  of  judging  pursued  or  the 
decisions  made.  Ideals  are  the  foundation  of  equity  and 
justice  in  live  stock  shows.  Unless  the  judge  has  an  adequate 
classification  whereby  he  may  establish  an  ideal  and  place 
the  animals  according  to  their  degree  of  conformity,  his  work 
will  necessarily  be  faulty.  It  is  impossible  to  judge  a  Stand- 
ardbred  and  a  Percheron  in  the  same  class,  because  an  ideal 
must  be  selected  or  a  definite  purpose  adhered  to  in  a  written 
or  mental  standard  of  excellence.  Where  two  distinct 
breeds  of  such  varying  conformation  compete  against  each 
other  this  is  manifestly  impossible,  as  no  two  animals  with 
extreme  breed  types  can  have  an  equal  or  even  a  close 
relationship  with  any  single  standard  of  excellence. 

Type  and  Breed  Standards. — Live  stock  judging  as  ordinarily 
practised  in  the  show  ring  or  by  prospective  buyers  is  not 
accomplished  by  the  aid  of  the  score  card.  However,  most 
colleges  have  adopted  a  system  of  score  card  judging, 
especially  for  beginners  in  the  subject.  This  is  done  to 
familiarize  the  student  with  the  various  structural  parts  of 
the  animal  and  to  fix  in  the  mind  the  relative  importance 
of  them.  For  college  work  score  cards  are  usually  arranged 
to  cover  the  types  of  animals  and  not  individual  breeds. 
This  enables  the  student  to  become  familiar  with  the  various 
types  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine.  After  these  basic 
principles  of  type  have  been  mastered  a  fuller  and  better 
understanding  of  the  various  breed  characteristics  may  be 
obtained  by  consulting  breed  standards  of  excellence  adopted 
by  the  registry  associations  or  by  reading  descriptive  litera- 
ture on  the  subject. 


SCORE  CARD  JUDGING  39 

Most  breed  associations,  with  the  exception  of  horse 
registry  organizations,  have  adopted  a  standard  of  excellence 
and  scale  of  points  for  the  breed  represented.  Usually  it  is 
not  practical  to  use  these  standards  for  show  yard  or  market 
judging.  They  serve  as  an  important  guide  and  not  as 
an  absolute  standard  for  practical  judging,  except  in 
special  cases,  such  as  scoring  for  advanced  registry  in  dairy 
cattle. 

Score  Card  Judging. — From  the  viewpoint  of  the  student 
judge,  there  are  three  well-defined  methods  of  arriving  at 
the  value  of  an  individual  or  a  class  of  animals.  The  first 
is  by  the  score  card  method,  the  second  by  examination  which 
is  followed  by  oral  or  written  comparisons,  as  practised  in 
advanced  classes  of  live  stock  judging,  and  the  third  by 
simply  placing  the  animals  in  their  comparative  order  of 
merit,  as  practised  in  the  show  ring.  Each  of  these  methods, 
after  the  first,  is  perfected  by  having  attained  proficiency  in 
the  preceding  one.  The  score  card  is  not  adapted  to  practical 
live  stock  judging,  it  being  used  solely  as  a  means  to  an  end. 
The  score  card  system  of  judging  is  used  in  the  class  room 
primarily  to  instruct  beginners  in  the  fundamental  art  of 
judging.  Its  principal  value  is  in  teaching  the  location  and 
value  of  the  various  parts  of  an  animal.  i\.fter  proficiency 
is  obtained  in  this  part  of  the  work,  the  score  card  is  usually 
replaced  by  more  advanced  methods  and  practices. 

Practically  the  only  value  of  the  score  card,  aside  from 
that  mentioned,  is  its  use  in  standardizing  the  value  of  an 
individual  animal.  It  is  used  for  this  purpose  largely  by 
dairy  cattle  record  associations  in  conjunction  with  advanced 
registry  tests.  Certain  score  card  requirements  are  often 
employed  by  these  associations  in  measuring  the  value  of 
both  male  and  female  animals.  In  reality  the  score  card 
is  not  practicable  in  live  stock  judging  because  a  complete 
balance  of  points  or  a  true  decision  cannot  always  be  logically 
obtained.  If  there  was  a  fixed  unit  of  value  to  each  part  of 
the  animal,  regardless  of  the  development  of  other  correlated 
parts,  such  a  method  might  be  satisfactorily  employed. 
However,  the  value  of  an  animal  varies  greatly  for  special 
purposes,  this  depending  on  the  relative  degree  of  perfection 


40 


METHODS  IN  JUDGING  AND  SELECTION 


'     *\5*fe 

■  -d  .  Jb^ ^ .  __ 

k,                 _ 

t       ! 

SHOW  RING  JUDGING  41 

of  the  related  parts,  thus  making  it  impossible  to  establish 
fixed  units  of  value. 

Comparative  Judging. — The  method  of  judging  by  com- 
parison is  the  logical  result  of  score  card  proficiency.  After 
the  details  of  location,  names  and  the  value  of  the  various 
parts  of  the  animal  organism  are  once  mastered,  a  class  of 
animals  may  be  placed  in  their  comparative  order  of  merit 
and  the  reasons  for  so  doing  written  or  given  oralh'.  The 
former  method  is  usually  employed  in  the  beginning  to  per- 
fect briefness  and  accuracy.  In  the  employment  of  the  com- 
parative method  of  judging  it  is  necessary  to  have  not  only 
a  clear  idea  of  animal  form,  but  also  a  logical  mind  in  form- 
ing a  complete  or  true  balance  of  points  among  the  animals 
under  judgment.  Numerous  questions  usually  arise  per- 
taining to  the  value  of  animal  conformation  in  its  relation  to 
the  various  factors  which  must  be  considered.  As  there  is 
no  fixed  rule  which  can  be  followed  in  these  cases  it  is  neces- 
sary for  the  student  to  have  a  clear  conception  of  the 
value  of  various  animal  conformations  in  the  many  relations 
which  they  assume  in  the  class  room  and  on  the  farm.  It  is 
for  this  reason  principally  that  score  card  judging  is  not  the 
most  satisfactory  method  to  employ.  It  is  this  balance  of 
the  practical  or  productive  capacity  which  must  be  considered 
in  judging  animals  for  specialized  purposes.  Comparative 
judging  of  individuals  entails  a  complete  harmonious  balance 
of  pomts  which  cannot  give  unjust  or  untrue  decisions  if 
based  on  fixed  fundamental  principles. 

Show  Ring  Judging. — Show  ring  judging  is  a  practical 
repetition  of  the  work  of  the  student  in  the  class  room,  with 
the  exception  that  reasons  are  usually  not  given  for  the  rating 
of  the  animals,  although  from  an  educational  viewpoint 
such  a  course  would  be  practical  and  highly  desirable. 
^Modern  show  ring  judging  is  based  entirely  on  the  evidences 
of  utility  and  quality  exliibited  in  the  external  characteristics. 
Blood  lines  are  considered  only  to  the  extent  which  the 
animal  shows  improved  breeding  and  pronounced  individual- 
ity. Otherwise,  animals  are  judged  and  ranked  according 
to  their  individuality  at  the  time  judgment  is  passed.  Form 
and  quality,  in  the  broad  sense,  include  all  essential  considera- 


42  METHODS  IN  JUDGING  AND  SELECTION 

tions  in  the  show  ring,  as  they  exhibit  in  one  way  or  another 
the  possession  or  absence  of  the  characteristics  defined  under 
all  subdivisions  considered  in  judging  animal  form.  These 
two  characteristics  are  inseparable  from  the  viewpoint  of 
the  critic.  The  form  varies  according  to  purpose  or  utility, 
but  if  the  correct  form  is  fixed  in  the  mind  and  the  meaning 
of  quality  is  clearly  understood  the  fundamentals  of  judging 
are  largely  mastered.  Gross  faults  in  one  or  the  other 
means  a  serious  defect,  and  consequently  the  show  ring 
judge  is  critical  in  his  estimate  of  these  factors.  It  is  only 
in  judging  the  horse,  where  action  is  a  prime  requisite,  that 
the  judge  varies  from  these  two  broad  standard  qualifications. 

The  essentials  for  successful  student  or  show  ring  judging 
are  a  keen  vision  in  analyzing  animal  form,  in  the  broad  sense, 
and  detecting  the  most  devious  faults  therein.  A  fault  once 
seen  in  an  animal  should  be  indelibly  stamped  on  the  mind  and 
the  degree  of  faultiness  clearly  fixed.  Unless  such  a  plan  is 
pursued,  the  judge  not  only  becomes  entangled  in  his  original 
impressions  but  tiring  of  the  judgment  through  prolonged 
decisions  is  apt  to  render  them  even  more  faulty.  A  steady 
and  fixed  purpose,  alert  detection  of  merit  and  faults,  and 
prompt,  yet  deliberate  decisions  are  responsible  for  making  a 
successful  show  ring  judge. 

Fundamental  Requirements  in  Judging. — Judging  involves 
the  possession  of  five  attributes  or  attainments.  These 
will  be  considered  in  their  order. 

Utility  Requirements . — It  is  necessary  to  have  a  definite 
knowledge  concerning  the  use  or  utility  of  the  animal. 
Every  factor  or  part  directly  or  indirectly  related  to  the 
purpose  or  productive  end  should  be  mastered.  Merit 
as  related  to  the  type,  breed,  or  class,  must  be  firmly  fixed 
in  the  mind.  Every  requirement  of  the  animal  or  animals 
in  question  must  be  clear  to  measure  value  accurately. 
This  involves  a  broad  foundation  knowledge  in  animal  breed- 
ing and  work,  meat,  market,  show,  and  speed  requirements. 

Keen  Observation. — The  accuracy  of  a  decision  in  the  show 
ring,  feed  lot  or  stock  yard,  where  many  decisions  are  daily 
intuitively  made,  is  largely  dependent  on  the  powers  of 
observation.     The  good  and  the  bad  points,  whether  gross 


FUNDAMENTAL  REQUIREMENTS  IN  JUDGING     43 

or  largely  apparent,  should  be  detected  with  promptness. 
The  possession  or  acquirement  of  this  faculty  is  not  always 
deep  seated,  yet  it  is  a  foundation  principle  in  live  stock 
judging.  The  degree  of  possession  or  attainment  of  keen 
observation  measures  one  of  the  important  attributes  of  a 
keen  live  stock  judge. 

Comparative  Qualities. — The  individual  animal  is  measured 
by  a  standard,  which  may  be  real,  written  or  pictured  in  the 
mind  or  on  canvas.  Under  any  condition,  it  is  the  standard 
by  which  the  judge  pronounces  the  value  of  an  animal. 
In  a  class  a  comparison  of  the  animals  under  judgment  is  of 
greatest  concern  to  the  judge.  While  the  written  or  oral 
standard  is  involved  in  selecting  the  best  individual  in  the 
class,  thereafter  this  individual  becomes  the  ideal  by  which 
the  other  animals  are  rated.  Comparison  not  only  involves 
a  strict  analysis  of  the  form  of  each  animal,  but  a  comparison 
of  the  simultaneously  located  parts  to  determine  the  com- 
parative degree  of  merit.  This  comparison  must  of  necessity 
be  in  accordance  with  the  purpose  or  utility  standard  for 
the  animal  under  observation.  The  viewpoint  becomes  of 
special  significance  at  this  time,  as  animals  have  component 
values  which  differ,  depending  on  type,  breed,  or  class  con- 
formity. 

Balance  of  Points. — ^The  balance  of  points  involves  deeper 
thought  and  greater  responsibility  than  any  other  factor 
mentioned,  as  it  is  on  the  equated  knowledge  that  a  decision 
is- reached.  Individuals  differ  greatly  in  merits  and  faults, 
both  as  individual  units  and  in  the  correlation  of  parts  within 
the  individual.  If  all  animals  differed  precisely  the  same 
in  their  component  parts,  and  if  there  was  a  fixed  value  to 
these  parts  for  every  purpose  of  animal  formation  and 
design,  judging  would  be  simple  indeed.  Because  of  the 
great  variation  in  animal  conformation,  as  related  to  the 
location  of  merits  and  faults  in  the  individual  structure,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  balance  the  points  of  form  which  are 
at  variance.  For  example,  it  is  easy  to  decide  on  the 
objectionable  features  of  an  open  shoulder  or  a  flat  rib  in  a 
fat  steer  class.  It  is  not  so  easy,  however,  to  decide  on  the 
relative  merits  and  demerits  of  an  animal  with  a  low  back, 


44  METHODS  IN  JUDGING  AND  SELECTION 

scantily  covered  with  flesh,  and  one  with  a  drooping  rump, 
thin  thighs,  and  high  or  open  twist.  This  involves  an 
accurate  balance  of  points  to  determine  the  relative  value 
of  the  animals  concerned.  It  involves  principles  fixed 
entirely  on  utility  requirements  and  the  comparative  value 
of  correlated  parts  or  units  from  which  a  conscientious,  con- 
servative judge  will  not  swerve. 

Decisions.— Th.e  decision  is  the  logical  result  of  the  fore- 
going factors  involved  in  rendering  judgment.  Decisions 
should  be  made  promptly,  yet  with  deliberation.  A  decision 
once  made  is  charged  against  the  animal  knowledge  which 
the  judge  possesses.  Careless  decisions  not  only  reflect  on 
the  judge  but  often  on  the  animals  and  their  owner  as  well. 
It  is  a  rare  thing  that  a  good  judge  changes  a  decision  if  he 
proceeds  understandingly  concerning  the  standard  by  which 
the  animals  are  being  judged.  A  misunderstanding  of  purpose 
or  utility  requirements  could  easily  be  responsible  for  a 
complete  reversal  of  a  decision.  No  other  just  cause  could 
be  advanced  for  a  change  of  a  decision.  Keen  discrimination 
and  fixed  principles  are  therefore  important  in  analyzing, 
comparing,  and  balancing  the  points  under  observation, 
the  sum  total  of  which  make  an  honest,  accurate  decision 
possible. 

Uniformity  of  Decisions. — Correct  ideals  are  largely  respon- 
sible for  accurate  and  uniform  decisions  in  the  judging  ring. 
Unless  the  student  possesses  a  keen  knowledge  of  animal 
form  and  has  a  clear  vision  in  balancing  the  various  points 
of  the  animals  in  a  class,  there  is  likely  to  be  a  serious  lack 
of  uniformity  in  the  decisions  made.  Because  of  the  prob- 
ability of  such  a  condition,  it  is  exceedingly  important  that 
the  foundation  principles  for  judging  practice  be  correctly 
fixed  in  the  mind.  This  involves,  not  only  a  knowledge  of 
the  exterior  characteristics  of  the  animal,  but  also  of  the 
vital  machinery  of  digestion,  circulation,  nerve  force,  repro- 
duction, and  development.  The  value  of  a  strong  head,  a 
broad  muzzle,  and  capacious  chest  development,  and  the 
relation  of  them  to  animal  vigor,  and  a  long  period  of  use- 
fulness, must  be  fully  understood.  The  value  of  nervous 
development,  style,  action,  symmetry  of  form  and  handling 


POSITION  OF  ANIMALS  45 

quality,  must  be  clearly  fixed  in  the  mind  of  the  judge 
before  he  can  proceed  with  a  continuity  of  decisions  which 
will  stand  the  test  of  minute  criticism. 

Fixed  ideals  of  the  various  types,  breeds,  and  classes  of 
animals  are  the  foundation  for  uniform  and  correct  de- 
cisions. After  a  type  is  once  established  by  the  judge  in  a 
class  it  should  be  followed  closely  until  the  animals  are  all 
ranked  according  to  their  conformity  to  this  type.  It  is 
only  in  exceptional  cases  that  it  becomes  necessary  to  break 
type  and  in  instances  of  this  kind  there  must  be  some  unusual 
reason  for  so  doing.  If  there  is  a  specific  ideal  or  type  of 
animal  established  at  the  head  of  a  class,  there  will  rarely 
be  an  occasion  for  following  it  with  an  animal  of  another 
distinct  type.  In  judging  animals  it  is  universally  recognized 
that  there  is  a  distinct  tj'pe  best  suited  for  all  specialized 
purposes.  A  distinct  break  in  type  would  therefore  be  ad- 
verse to  such  a  principle.  In  a  class  for  breeding  animals 
such  a  condition  might  arise  through  the  presence  of  disease, 
or  from  lack  of  proper  constitutional  development  or  spe- 
cific breed  attributes.  An  animal  lacking  in  constitutional 
development  or  one  in  an  incipient  or  advanced  stage  of  an 
hereditary  disease  should  not  be  given  priority  in  a  class 
of  breeding  animals.  A  clear  understanding  of  the  purpose 
for  which  an  animal  is  bred,  a  distinct  conception  of  the  type 
adopted  for  the  standard,  and  the  reasons  for  discarding  an 
animal  which  does  not  conform  to  the  established  type,  are 
necessary  for  convincing,  uniform,  clear-cut  decisions. 

Position  of  Animals. — ^In  critically  examining  animals 
in  a  class  or  otherwise,  it  is  advantageous  to  have  them  all 
headed  in  one  direction  in  a  uniform  line  on  a  level  surface. 
They  should  be  lined  up  on  a  smooth,  even  surface,  for  if 
placed  otherwise  the  animals  will  usually  assume  an  ill 
position,  appear  larger  or  smaller  according  to  the  view- 
point from  w^hich  the  examination  is  made,  or  such  an 
unnatural  position  may  accentuate  merit  or  hide  or  cover 
defects.  If  the  viewpoint  is  below  the  animals,  they  will 
appear  larger,  while  if  it  is  above  they  will  appear  smaller. 
It  is  very  easy  to  deceive  the  eye  in  this  respect.  The  animals 
should   be  placed   level  from  the  broadsides  view.     It   is 


46  METHODS  IN  JUDGING  AND  SELECTION 

important  to  have  the  front  feet  on  a  level  with  the  rear  feet. 
If  otherwise  placed  they  will  appear  high  or  low  at  the  withers, 
as  the  case  may  be.  A  position  assumed  to  emphasize  good 
qualities  is  permissible  while  one  assumed  to  cover  faults 
is  deceit  and,  therefore,  objectionable.  There  is  always 
an  opportunity  to  deceive  the  eye,  and  especially  is  this 
true  with  the  beginner.  Salesmen  and  showmen  sometimes 
take  advantage  of  these  points  to  sell  or  exhibit  an  animal 
which  otherwise  might  be  an  encumbrance  on  their  hands 
or  a  loser  in  the  show  ring.  Many  other  gross  and  minor 
practices  are  resorted  to  in  showing  animals.  The  fairness 
of  such  practices  are,  of  necessity,  questionable. 

System. — Decisions  are  reached  most  accurately  and  com- 
prehensively by  using  some  definite  method  of  procedure. 
This  is  important  for  the  beginner,  although  the  best 
judges  use  system.  This  may  not  be  readily  apparent  to 
the  observer,  but  if  a  close  watch  is  kept  on  the  movements 
of  the  judge  it  wall  be  noticed  that  he  usually  has  a  definite 
order  in  which  he  surveys  the  animals  in  a  class.  Even  the 
judge  himself  may  not  be  aware  that  he  uses  system  in  his 
work.  In  such  cases  it  is  merely  intuition  which  prompts 
and  which  thereby  obtains  the  most  accurate  decisions  in 
the  briefest  period  of  time. 

Point  of  Approach. — In  examining  a  class  of  animals  the 
student  should  proceed  as  quietly  as  possible,  approaching 
the  animal  from  the  front,  not  only  to  avoid  frightening  a 
nervous  animal,  but  because  this  is  the  logical  viewpoint 
from  which  to  start  the  examination.  It  also  permits  a 
student  class  to  proceed  with  work  in  a  regular  manner 
without  any  unnecessary  delay.  This  is  very  important, 
especially  where  a  large  class  of  animals  is  to  be  gone  over. 
Regularity  and  promptness  are  not  only  important  but 
necessary  in  live  stock  judging  for  accurately  coordinated 
results. 

General  Examination. — In  judging  live  stock  it  is  important 
that  some  regular  method  of  procedure  be  employed  to 
determine  the  merits  of  the  individual  or  class.  By  so  doing 
much  greater  headway  can  be  made  than  by  following  a  hap- 
hazard method  of  making  the  comparisons.     If  the  animal 


GENERAL  EXAMINATION  47 

is  properly  viewed  the  student  or  the  prospective  purchaser 
will  not  allow  any  important  point  to  pass  unnoticed  on  the 
first  examination.  This  is  very  important  in  judging,  as 
first  impressions  are  always  valuable.  If  a  judge  allows 
himself  to  get  in  the  habit  of  returning  the  second  or  third 
time  to  reinforce  his  previous  impressions,  he  is  very  likely 
to  become  biased  or  render  faulty  decisions.  For  this 
reason  every  part  of  the  animal  in  view  from  any  particular 
angle  or  position  should  come  criticially  under  the  eye  of  the 
judge.  INIuch  of  the  work  can  be  done  by  taking  certain 
standard  points  of  view  and  make  it  a  practice  to  get 
all  the  information  desired  from  the  first  examination.  If 
the  class  of  animals  is  properly  arranged  for  judging  this 
can  be  done  conveniently.  It  will  save  much  annoyance 
to  the  judge,  the  animals,  and  the  spectators. 

Front. — The  first  view  of  an  animal  should  always  be  from 
the  front,  as  many  of  the  impressions  gotten  from  this  posi- 
tion will  enable  the  judge  to  eliminate  undesirable  animals 
immediately.  While  this  statement  has  qualifications,  it  is 
true  in  a  large  measure,  and  especially  so  with  pure-bred 
stock  where  breed  type  enters  largely  into  consideration. 
The  head,  is  an  excellent  index  of  what  may  be  expected 
in  the  animal  when  viewed  from  the  side  or  rear.  Animals 
with  strong  breeding  qualities  as  a  general  rule  have  very 
characteristic  clear-cut  features  about  the  head.  From 
the  front  view  the  shape  and  character  of  the  head,  neck, 
width  and  depth  of  chest,  set  of  legs  and  feet,  and  the 
quality  of  all  of  these  parts  may  be  determined  without 
actually  handling  the  animal.  While  it  may  be  difficult 
for  the  beginner  to  keep  from  handling,  such  a  practice 
will  ultimately  lead  to  undesirable  results.  In  making  a 
critical  study  of  the  head,  the  length  and  width  should  be 
determined,  especially  between  the  eyes  and  across  the 
forehead  because  of  the  special  significance  of  a  strong 
development  in  these  parts.  A  broad  head  indicates  intelli- 
gence and  a  mild  or  kindly  disposition.  This  is  especially  so 
in  the  horse,  because  docility  and  intelligence  are  naturally 
looked  for  in  such  animals.  However,  it  is  no  less  important 
in  cattle,  swine  or  sheep,  as  a  broad,  clearly  defined  head 


48  METHODS  IN  JUDGING  AND  SELECTION 

is  a  universal  indication  of  intelligence,  docility,  and  thrift. 
The  size  of  the  eyes,  their  prominence,  brightness  and  ex- 
pression should  all  be  given  due  consideration  as  these 
characteristics  should  be  prominently  developed. 

Side. — Viewed  from  the  side,  every  part  accessible  to 
the  eye  should  be  examined  carefully.  The  general  style 
and  symmetry,  length  and  depth  of  body,  chest  capacity, 
set  of  legs  and  any  other  special  attribute  of  form  or  quality 
peculiar  to  the  animal  under  consideration  should  be  carefully 
fixed  in  the  mind  from  this  viewpoint.  No  factor  which 
should  be  considered  in  the  final  balance  of  points  should 
be  omitted  from  the  first  examination.  This  is  of  unusual 
importance  where  the  class  of  animals  is  large. 

Rear. — In  viewing  the  animal  from  the  rear  the  width, 
fulness,  and  depth  of  form  should  be  examined  carefully  as 
well  as  the  length,  position,  set,  and  shape  of  legs,  especially  in 
the  horse.  After  this  examination  is  completed  the  opposite 
side  from  the  one  first  viewed  should  be  gone  over  to  detect 
anything  unusual  or  faulty  in  the  conformation  which  would 
give  the  animal  an  unsymmetrical  appearance  or  depreciate 
its  value  in  any  way.  This  is  of  special  importance  in  the 
horse,  where  a  blemish  or  an  unsoundness  would  be  a  serious 
detriment. 

Action. — Action  is  of  primary  importance  in  the  horse, 
although  in  judging  breeding  animals  of  any  description  due 
consideration  should  be  given  to  this  point.  Animals  which 
have  been  pampered  are  often  stilted  in  their  action  which  is 
not  in  keeping  with  strong  prepotent  reproducing  qualities. 
While  it  is  desirable  to  have  breeding  animals  showy  in  form 
by  having  a  reasonable  amount  of  finish,  this  should  not  be 
gained  at  the  expense  of  depressed  vigor  or  faulty  action. 
In  judging  breeding  animals  of  any  description  each  animal 
in  the  class  should  be  walked  to  determine  any  unusual 
condition  or  fault  in  form  and  action.  What  may  apparently 
be  an  ideal  animal  in  form  at  rest  will  be  depreciated  greatly 
in  value  because  of  faulty  movement  or  action.  A  breeding 
animal  should  be  useful  for  a  period  of  years  and  a  well- 
balanced  condition  in  form,  constitution  and  action  is 
essential  to  this  end. 


HANDLING  ANIMALS  49 

Handling  Animals. — ^The  handling  of  animals  is  involved 
in  determining  conditions  which  cannot  be  readily  perceived 
by  the  aid  of  the  eye.  In  the  several  types  of  animals  there 
are  various  parts  which  must  be  handled  more  or  less  carefully 
to  determine  the  condition  of  the  structural  parts. 

Amount  of  Handling.— It  is  always  preferable  in  judging  a 
class  of  animals  to  handle  them  as  little  as  possible.  While 
it  will  be  necessary  for  the  beginner  to  occasionally  reinforce 
his  opinion  obtained  with  the  eye,  it  is  preferable  not  to 
handle  an  animal  any  more  than  is  absolutely  necessary. 
It  is  very  easy  to  get  in  the  habit  of  allowing  the  hands  to 
do  that  which  should  be  determined  by  the  eye.  This  not 
only  involves  risk  but  prolongs  the  examination  and  decision. 
The  best  judges  of  live  stock,  by  constant  practice,  have 
developed  the  capacity  of  comprehending  or  determining 
what  lies  under  the  skin  of  the  animals  largely  by  the  aid  of 
the  eye  alone.  While  it  is  necessary  for  the  best  judges  to 
use  the  hands  at  times,  and  especially  where  the  decision  is 
close,  it  is  not  good  general  practice.  The  beginner  should 
always  use  precaution  to  see  that  he  does  not  form  the  habit 
of  relying  on  the  hands,  except  in  a  case  where  a  close 
decision  justifies  the  practice. 

Determining  Handling  Quality. — Quality  can  often  be 
determined  or  measured  largely  by  the  eye  alone.  It  is 
permissible,  however,  to  use  the  hands  to  a  limited  degree  to 
determine  the  handling  quality  of  the  skin,  its  fineness, 
pliability,  and  elasticity.  The  condition  of  the  hair  and 
skin  may  be  determined  by  the  hands,  although  this  is  not 
always  necessary. 

Mammary  Development. — In  judging  dairy  cattle  the 
development  of  the  mammary  system  is  of  special  significance 
because  of  its  direct  relation  to  the  value  of  these  animals. 
The  hands  may  be  used  to  determine  the  pliability  and 
elasticity  of  the  skin  on  the  udder,  the  length,  size,  and  shape 
of  the  mammary  veins,  the  number  of  branches,  and  the  size 
of  the  mammary  wells.  Other  than  this  the  eye  should  be 
used  to  determine  the  relative  merits  of  the  mammary  system. 

Determination  of  Unsoundness. — Unsoundness  is  of  pri- 
mary importance  in  the  horse.  Any  unsound  condition 
4 


50  METHODS  IN  JUDGING  AND  SELECTION 

should  be  determined  as  far  as  practicable  by  the  eye. 
Questionable  cases  should  be  determined  by  the  use  of  the 
hands.  Too  much  handling  is  not  a  good  form,  however, 
and  should  be  avoided. 

Examination  of  Sheep. — In  judging  sheep  a  thorough 
examination  by  the  use  of  the  hands  is  necessary  The 
practice  is  perfectly  justifiable  on  the  ground  that  the  form 
of  a  sheep  may  not  be  in  conformity  with  the  outline  of  the 
wool  covering.  Sheep  are  trimmed  to  give  beauty  of  form 
and  to  cover  faults  and  defects.  While  the  latter  practice  is 
natural,  it  is  questionable  whether  it  is  justifiable. 

Any  fault  or  defect  in  form  can  easily  be  determined  by  a 
rigid  examination  with  the  hands  in  all  important  parts 
considered  in  animal  judging.  The  method  of  examination 
will  be  explained  more  fully  in  a  subsequent  discussion. 

Exterior  Faults  and  Defects.— The  three  most  common 
kinds  of  faults  and  defects  are  classified  under  the  terms 
unsoundness,  blemishes,  and  operations  which  are  of  impor- 
tance in  judging  as  described  below. 

Unsoundness. — Unsoundness  is  of  particular  importance 
in  the  horse.  Because  of  the  character  of  work  for  which 
the  horse  is  used  it  is  of  special  importance  to  have  a  sound 
and  otherwise  healthy  animal.  While  this  is  important  in 
judging  any  class  of  animals  it  is  especially  necessary  in  the 
horse  when  used  for  hard  and  persistent  service.  Cattle, 
hogs,  and  sheep  intended  for  the  block  may  have  slightly 
imperfect  structural  forms  and  still  be  satisfactory  meat 
producers.  If  they  were  to  be  retained  for  a  period  of 
years,  like  the  breeding  animal,  the  pleasure  or  work  horse, 
it  would  be  very  important  to  have  them  free  from  any 
hereditary  or  predisposed  unsoundness.  Of  all  the  animals 
named,  however,  the  horse  is  of  special  interest,  as  severe 
driving  or  work  often  develops  troubles  which  might  not 
occur  if  they  were  not  subjected  to  actual  road  or  field  work, 
something  which  other  farm  animals  are  not  required  to  do. 
On  the  streets  of  the  large  cities  horses  are  much  shorter 
lived  from  an  active  utility  standpoint,  because  their  con- 
stant contact  with  the  hard  pavements  usually  aggravates  an 
unsoundness  or  develops  any  predisposed  trouble.     Many  of 


EXTERIOR  FAULTS  AND  DEFECTS  51 

these  horses,  if  kept  on  the  farm,  might  never  develop 
unsoundness.  City-used  horses  may  be  rejuvenated  by  a 
rest  and  the  less  exacting  service  in  the  field  or  on  the 
farm. 

Blemishes. — A  perfect  specimen  of  a  horse  should  not  only 
conform  in  his  lines  to  the  standard  of  perfection,  as  outlined 
for  the  type  or  breed,  but  there  should  be  absolute  freedom 
from  blemishes  and  unsoundness.  While  an  animal  may  be 
a  perfect  breeder  or  worker,  although  blemishes  occur,  such 
marks  are  unsightly  and  decrease  the  market  value.  An 
unsoundness,  on  the  other  hand,  may  not  only  seriously 
interfere  with  the  usefulness  of  the  animal  but  in  many 
cases  such  troubles  are  transmitted.  A  predisposition  to 
such  diseases  as  bone  spavin,  side  bones,  ring  bones,  or  curbs, 
often  causes  serious  trouble.  A  blemish  will  neither  be  trans- 
mitted nor  will  it  often  interfere  with  the  usefulness  of  the 
animal,  unless  it  occurs  in  a  serious  form  on  some  part  of 
the  leg  or  foot.  When  it  so  interferes  with  usefulness  it 
becomes  an  unsoundness.  Wire  cuts,  bruises,  scars  from 
cuts  or  abrasions  constitute  a  few  of  the  marks  which  are 
termed  blemishes.  Any  scar  or  mark  which  is  acquired 
through  accident  maj^  properly  be  termed  a  blemish,  while 
an  unsoundness  is  acquired  through  transmission  or  a  pre- 
disposition to  the  trouble  because  of  faulty  conformation, 
or  from  a  severe  accident,  or  unusual  strain.  Some  of  the 
more  common  and  serious  kinds  of  unsoundness  will  be 
described  in  the  chapters  on  horses  and  mules. 

Operations. — Operations  on  animals  for  improving  show 
condition  have  been  practised  with  considerable  regularity 
and  at  times  with  much  success,  as  far  as  the  immediate 
results  were  concerned  in  the  show  ring.  From  the  stand- 
point of  the  individual  as  a  utility  animal  or  as  a  breeder, 
such  practices  are  not  justified.  Show  ring  judging  from 
this  standpoint  has  not  been  all  that  it  should  be.  While 
the  individuals  may  be  otherwise  meritorious,  if  there  is 
any  indication  of  an  operation  having  been  performed, 
such  animals  should  be  discriminated  against  severely.  If 
an  animal  cannot  appear  in  the  ring  in  a  natural  condition 
it  is  not  justifiable  to  allow  such  animals  to  win  over  those 


52  METHODS  IN  JUDGING  AND  SELECTION 

which  are  normall}'  constituted,  although  less  perfect  than 
those  made  so  by  superficial  alterations. 

There  are  several  very  satisfactory  operations  which  may 
be  performed  without  marring  the  appearance  of  the  animal 
or  without  causing  abrasions  of  any  kind.  These  conditions 
should  be  carefully  observed  in  examining  an  animal. 
Usually  close  examination  will  reveal  any  alteration  of 
structure  from  an  operation.  It  is  highly  important,  there- 
fore, that  the  student  become  familiar  with  the  natural 
structural  form  and  condition  of  the  animal  in  order  that 
he  may  determine  any  unusual  alteration  of  the  nature 
suggested. 

One  of  the  most  common  operations  is  that  known  as 
"bishoping"  the  teeth  to  make  an  animal  appear  younger 
than  otherwise.  This  consists  in  burning  artificial  cups  in  the 
teeth  which  normally  develop  and  disappear  in  the  animal 
between  the  ages  of  five  and  eleven  years.  This  condition 
is  often  used  to  advantage  to  make  an  old  animal  appear 
3'oung  and  thus  sell  more  profitably.  Another  operation, 
quite  often  performed,  is  that  of  injecting  air  beneath  the 
skin  to  make  the  animal  appear  full  and  plump.  This  may 
be  done  to  fill  out  the  hollows  above  the  eyes  which  appear 
with  old  age.  It  may  also  be  used  to  improve  the  condition 
of  a  once  "sweenied"  shoulder  or  atrophied  muscles  in  other 
parts.  Nerving  or  nerve  cutting  is  also  practised  to  prevent 
lameness. 

Functional  Points  in  Judging  and  Selection. — In  judging 
animals  in  the  show  ring  the  exterior  points  of  merit  are 
largely  the  sole  basis  on  which  decisions  are  made.  However, 
in  the  actual  selection  of  some  animals,  especially  horses, 
there  are  certain  points  which  are  vitally  important  in 
estimating  future  usefulness.  Selection,  as  specifically  differ- 
entiated from  animal  judging,  brings  into  use  certain  pre- 
liminary qualifications  for  detection.  Real  selection,  for 
the  purpose  of  learning  all  of  the  good  and  bad  points, 
has  underlying  determinations  which  must  necessarily  be 
determined  outside  of  the  class  room  or  judging  ring.  While 
attention  should  be  given  to  these  factors  in  other  animals 
they  are  not  equally  important. 


FUNCTIONAL  POINTS  IN  JUDGING  AND  SELECTION      53 

Horses. — The  judging  and  selection  of  the  horse  differs 
fundamentally  from  other  animals  because  of  the  relation 
of  its  disposition,  temperament,  soundness,  and  action  to 
its  value  in  the  breeding  or  commercial  world.  A  horse 
must  possess  all  these  additional  attributes  to  make  it 
most  acceptable  and  serviceable. 

Unlike  most  other  farm  animals  the  principal  value  of  the 
horse  lies  in  the  amount  and  quality  of  work  which  can  be 
performed.  This  of  necessity  requires  strict  observance  to 
the  special  attributes  named.  The  horse  should  therefore 
be  examined  in  and  out  of  the  stable.  While  customary 
student  or  show  ring  judging  will  not  permit  this  additional 
examination,  it  is  important  that  it  be  accomplished  when 
conditions  warrant. 

An  examination  of  the  horse  in  the  stall  will  reveal  many 
of  the  vices  which  mar  and  prevent  a  ready  sale  of  an  other- 
wise valuable  and  well-formed  animal.  The  most  common 
vices  detected  in  the  stall  are  cribbing,  weaving,  wind  sucking 
and  halter  pulling,  all  of  which  lower  the  value  of  an  animal 
materially.  Unsound  feet  or  legs  may  also  be  frequently 
detected  by  the  position  in  which  the  animal  stands.  When 
the  weight  is  thrown  on  one  leg  or  foot,  either  in  the  fore- 
quarters  or  hindquarters,  there  is  indication  of  lameness  or  un- 
soundness. Weak  or  imperfect  eyes  may  also  be  determined 
by  the  size,  shape,  and  condition  which  they  assmne  when  the 
animal  is  brought  from  a  dark  stable  into  the  outside  light. 

After  the  test  of  the  eyes  is  completed  it  is  of  vital  im- 
portance to  examine  the  condition  of  the  wind  carefully. 
Unsound  wind  is  detected  by  hitching  the  animal  to  a  vehicle 
and  giving  severe  exercise.  Any  questionable  unsoundness 
of  wind  from  collar  or  harness  adjustment  should  be  decided 
by  having  the  harness  readjusted  or  by  exercising  the  ani- 
mal vigorously  under  the  saddle.  After  stopping  the  animal 
suddenly,  the  judge  should  advance  quickly  to  the  nostrils 
and  note  the  character  of  the  breathing.  If  it  is  character- 
ized by  a  wheezing  sound  the  probable  trouble  is  either 
roaring  or  whistling.  When  the  breathing  is  irregular  or 
spasmodic  the  animal  is  likely  affected  with  the  heaves. 
In  the  latter  case,  the  air  is  apparently  partly  expelled 


54  METHODS  IN  JUDGING  AND  SELECTION 

from  the  lungs,  respiration  stops  for  a  short  period  when  the 
breathing  or  expulsion  of  the  air  is  continued,  Heavey 
horses  are  characterized  by  irregular  depressions  of  the 
flanks,  these  movements  being  coordinated  with  the  stoppage 
and  expulsion  of  the  air  from  the  lungs. 

Other  Animals.- — In  other  animals  than  the  horse  con- 
tagious, infectious,  and  hereditary  diseases  are  the  most 
likely  troubles  or  imperfections  which  cannot  always  be 
determined  in  the  show  ring.  For  example,  tuberculosis  and 
contagious  abortion  in  cattle,  cholera  in  hogs,  and  parasitic 
diseases  in  sheep  are  the  most  common,  and  the  ones  usually 
the  most  important  to  detect.  Unsoundness,  as  applied 
to  the  horse,  is  not  an  important  determination  in  cattle, 
swine,  and  sheep.  Their  individuality,  outside  of  precautions 
against  disease,  can  be  determined  very  accurately  from  the 
exterior  characteristics.  Breeding  animals  may  be  considered 
as  the  exception. 

In  the  actual  selection  of  a  male  or  female  for  breeding, 
they  should  be  tested  if  feasible  to  do  so.  This  is  especially 
important  in  selecting  high-priced  breeding  stock.  However, 
it  may  not  always  be  economy  or  good  policy  to  test  young 
animals.  In  fact,  a  large  percentage  of  both  males  and 
females  are  sold  at  an  age  when  testing  would  be  impossible. 
Average  or  moderate-priced  animals  are  seldom  tested  for 
breeding  qualities.  The  comparative  financial  risk  is  not 
sufficient  to  warrant  such  a  method  of  selection.  Older  and 
more  valuable  animals  are  worthy  of  greater  consideration. 
Sires  should  be  tested  with  females  which  have  proved  their 
merit  in  the  breeding  herd.  Likewise,  females  Should  be 
tested  with  sires  which  have  proved  their  efficiency.  Any 
special  merits  or  faults  are  thus  readily  detected.  The 
animal  used  for  breeding  to  the  untried  individual  should 
always  be  a  tried  and  proved  breeding  animal.  Otherwise 
the  test  is  of  no  value. 

Promptness,  Accuracy,  and  Thoroughness.  —  The  student 
should  proceed  with  the  examination  of  the  animal  as  rapidly 
as  possible.  However,  it  is  necessary  to  take  sufficient  time 
to  judge  the  various  parts  accurately.  If  this  is  not  accom- 
plished in  the  beginning  it  usually  leads  to  hazy,  uncertain 


ARRIVING  AT  DECISIONS  55 

conclusions.  The  first  decision,  if  carefully  reached  or 
decided  upon,  is  usually  the  most  accurate,  granting  that 
the  student  has  proceeded  in  his  examination  with  a  determin- 
ation to  locate  the  various  points  of  merit  accurately  and 
place  the  class  accordingly.  If  an  animal  is  viewed  hurriedly 
and  no  definite  impression  is  made  of  the  basic  merits  or 
faults  possessed  it  will  usually  cause  misjudgment.  It 
will  save  time  and  usually  induce  greater  accuracy  to  survey 
carefully  both  major  and  minor  merits  and  faults  during  the 
first  examination. 

Arriving  at  Decisions. — Decisions  are  based  on  ideals  and 
reached  in  the  following  manner : 

Basis  of  Judgment. — Live  stock  judging  implies  the  passing 
of  judgment  on  a  class  of  animals  from  some  specific  view- 
point. The  establishment  of  distinct  types,  breeds  and 
market  classes  is  fundamental  in  fixing  the  viewpoint  from 
which  the  student  or  show  ring  judge  may  work.  INIodern 
live  stock  judging* implies  a  fixation  of  t^'pe  from  the  standard 
of  which  the  awards  in  a  class  must  be  made.  It  is  very 
important  that  before  judging  begins  a  standard  of  com- 
parison or  purpose  be  established  upon  which  the  decisions 
may  be  based.  A  class  of  mares,  for  example,  may  be  judged 
either  as  purely  draft  animals,  as  breeders,  or  a  combination 
of  the  two.  Unless  the  standard  is  understood  in  the  be- 
ginning there  is  likely  to  be  a  great  variation  in  the  awards 
owing  to  the  difterence  in  the  standards  selected.  Two 
mares  judged  strictly  as  draft  animals  might  be  reversed 
when  judged  from  the  breeding  standpoint.  It  is  this 
basis  of  judgment  which  must  be  kept  constantly  in  mind  to 
avoid  erroneous  decisions.  In  judging  any  class  of  animals, 
the  basis  or  standard  of  comparison  should  first  be  clearly 
fixed  in  the  mind,  and  then  each  animal  should  be  placed 
according  to  the  degree  of  conformity  to  this  basis  or  stand- 
ard.    This  rule  is  fundamental  in  all  live  stock  judging. 

Culling  Inferior  Animals. — If  the  class  which  is  being 
judged  contains  a  large  nmnber  of  animals  it  is  usually  good 
practice  to  go  through  the  entire  number  and  eliminate  those 
which  have  no  chance  of  winning  a  place.  By  so  doing,  it 
will  avoid  any  burden  to  the  mind  or  eye  which  the  viewing 


56  METHODS  IN  JUDGING  AND  SELECTION 

of  a  large  number  of  animals  might  cause.  After  elimi-' 
nating  all  of  the  inferior  specimens,  the  selected  class  should 
then  be  examined  carefully  and  the  remaining  number  placed 
according  to  individual  merit.  It  is  not  good  practice  to 
cull  the  class  to  the  exact  number  which  it  is  desired  to 
place.  This  is  especially  true  if  there  are  no  outstanding 
winners.  If  the  animals  are  of  about  the  same  merit  when 
the  points  are  balanced  it  will  be  advantageous  to  retain 
several  surplus  animals  in  the  short  leet  from  which  the 
winners  are  to  be  selected.  This  will  avoid  any  likelihood 
of  eliminating  a  possible  winner  from  the  selected  class. 

Draft  or  Short  Leet. — The  term  draft  or  short  leet  is  the 
term  applied  to  the  animals  retained  in  a  class  to  be  placed 
according  to  their  comparative  merit.  If  the  class  is  small 
in  number  it  is  not  necessary  to  eliminate  the  inferior  animals 
or  resort  to  the  short  leet,  as  the  eye  can  readily  determine 
those  which  are  entitled  to  win.  At  some  of  the  larger 
shows,  where  several  animals  are  brought  into  the  ring,  it 
is  necessary  to  use  the  eliminating  process.  In  a  small 
class  it  is  neither  necessary  nor  advisable,  unless  for  some 
unusual  reason. 


CHAPTER  V. 

FACTORS  AND  PRINCIPLES   APPLICABLE  TO 

THE  JUDGING  AND  SELECTION  OF 

LIVE  STOCK. 

INDIVIDUAL  MERIT. 

In  judging  the  various  types,  breeds,  and  classes  of  animals, 
there  are  certain  fundamentals  which  are  directly  related 
to  their  form  and  functioning  capacity.  These  points  are  all 
of  primary  importance  and  may  be  accurately  measured  when 
compared  with  the  proper  standard  significant  of  the  breed, 
type,  or  class  in  question. 

Utility. — A  proper  definition  of  the  term  utility  is  funda- 
mental for  accurately  judging  all  classes  of  live  stock. 
Insufficient  evidence  of  utility  or  conformity  to  a  standard 
is  largely  responsible  for  eliminating  individuals  from  a 
placing.  Animals  are  not  always  eliminated  from  the 
judging  ring  because  of  absolute  inferiority,  but  rather 
because  of  improper  adaptation  to  the  standard  with  which 
they  are  to  be  compared.  Before  making  a  decision  on  a 
class  of  individuals,  one  should  become  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  the  purpose  for  which  the  animals  are  being  judged. 
Linless  such  information  is  first  obtained  gross  errors  may 
occur  in  the  decisions. 

There  are  instances  where  the  most  inferior  animal  in  a 
class  might  be  placed  at  the  head  because  of  its  closer  con- 
formity to  the  type  taken  for  the  standard.  A  fat  steer 
in  a  feeder  class  might  be  an  outstanding  winner,  barring 
purpose  or  utility.  It  may  readily  be  supposed  that  such  a 
steer  would  be  popularly  classed  as  deserving  of  first  merit, 
yet  utility  or  conformity  to  purpose  must  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration. If  such  a  class  is  being  placed  from  the  stand- 
point of  feed-lot  adaptation  then  the  thinner  and  less  attrac- 

(57). 


58          JUDGING  AND  SELECTION  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

tive  type  of  animal  would  rightfully  be  the  winner,  other 
conditions  being  equal.  In  other  instances  the  round, 
sleek-bodied  colt  might  be  popularly  classed  as  the  most 
deserving  animal,  yet  from  the  standpoint  of  future  develop- 
ment and  final  value,  the  animal  with  the  larger  bone,  more 
angular  and  growthy  form  should  be  selected. 

Numerous  other  examples  could  be  cited  where  the  most 
inferior  animal,  barring  adaptation  to  purpose,  might  be 
placed  first  in  a  class.  A  definite  knowledge  of  utility, 
however,  is  the  foundation  and  keynote  of  successful  live 
stock  judging.  A  class  of  animals  should  never  be  given 
a  rating  before  information  pertaining  to  their  usage  is 
obtained.  One  class  might  be  placed  in  a  certain  order  and 
later  in  a  reverse  order  by  changing  the  viewpoint  for 
making  the  decision.  The  student  should  be  watchful  in 
placing  classes  of  stock,  as  utility  or  usefulness  is  the  real 
foundation  on  which  decisions  are  made. 

General  Appearance. — Ordinarily  there  are  certain  dis- 
tinctive characters  possessed  by  an  animal  which  distin- 
guishes it  from  all  others.  The  first  impression  obtained 
of  an  animal  implies  general  appearance,  signifying  the  size, 
shape  or  Jorm,  weight,  color,  peculiar  markings,  symmetry 
and  general  demeanor,  all  being  of  special  significance  in 
approaching  or  establishing  the  degree  of  conformity  to 
the  standard  implied  or  written.  The  factors  pertaining  to 
general  appearance  should  be  determined  at  a  distance  and 
not  at  a  close  angle,  as  such  a  position  would  likely  obscure 
symmetry  or  peculiarities  in  the  animal  under  observation. 
General  impressions  should  always  be  obtained  at  a  distance 
sufficient  to  bring  the  real  utility  value  in  the  proper  sphere 
of  form  and  development.  Other  more  detailed  studies 
may  be  made  at  close  range  which  will  enable  the  observer 
to  obtain  a  clear-cut  picture  of  the  value  of  an  animal  in 
actual  service.  This  involves  a  determination  of  the  value 
of  several  fundamental  factors  significant  of  the  various 
types,  breeds,  and  classes  of  animals,  as  discussed  in  the  fol- 
lowing. 

Form. — The  form  of  most  domestic  animals,  especially 
meat-producing    or    block   animals  conforms   closely  to   a 


INDIVIDUAL  MERIT  59 

parallelogram.  The  principal  exceptions  are  the  dairy 
breeds  of  cattle,  the  Thoroughbred  (running)  horse,  the  bacon 
hog,  the  JNIerino  breeds  of  sheep,  and  one  or  two  other 
breeds  not  of  special  importance.  This  type  has  been 
developed  because  of  the  value  accruing  through  the  increased 
amount  of  edible  products  in  animals  of  such  conformation. 
The  form  of  practically  all  English  and  Scotch  breeds  of 
live  stock  is  parallelogramic,  barring  a  few  important  excep- 
tions. From  a  knowledge  of  these  facts,  students  in  judging 
can  very  often  determine  in  a  general  way  the  points  upon 
which  stress  should  be  placed. 

In  judging  live  stock,  if  a  proper  analysis  is  made  of  the 
various  types  of  domestic  animals,  it  will  not  be  extremely 
difficult  to  decide  on  the  general  merits  of  any  class  of 
individuals.  While  this  knowledge  cannot  be  used  in  making 
keen  discriminations  between  individuals,  it  can  be  used  very 
successfully  in  establishing  a  foundation  for  the  beginner. 
If  the  particular  points  qualifying  the  specific  type  of  an 
animal  are  conjoined  with  the  general  type  upon  which  the 
animal  is  developed,  it  will  be  especially  helpful  in  deter- 
mining the  rating  of  a  class.  For  example,  in  a  class  of  pure- 
bred animals,  if  the  points  indicating  breed  character  have 
been  mastered  and  they  are  properly  correlated  with  the 
general  form  of  the  animal,  the  rating  of  the  animals  in  the 
class  can  be  practically  determined. 

One  of  the  next  important  types  of  live  stock  with  which 
the  student  has  to  deal  is  the  angular,  w^edge-shaped  form 
of  the  dairy  cow.  If  the  type  of  the  dairy  animal  is  once 
well  fixed  in  the  mind  and  the  points  of  utility  clearly 
defined  and  distinguished,  it  will  furnish  an  excellent  founda- 
tion on  which  to  build  a  knowledge  of  the  important  differ- 
ences in  the  various  dairy  breeds. 

The  bacon  hog  is  different  from  the  fat  type  of  hog, 
especially  in  the  width  of  the  animal,  which  is  comparatively 
narrow  considering  its  length  and  depth.  It  is  necessary 
to  have  a  long,  smooth,  deep  and  lean  side  in  the  bacon  hog, 
as  it  is  not  possible  to  obtain  bacon  characteristics  in  the 
square,  compact  form  of  the  fat  hog  which  conforms  to  the 
general  type  first  described.    This  is  one  of  the  exceptions 


60  JUDGING  AND  SELECTION  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

in  the  English  type  of  stock  which  is  very  largely  bred  on 
the  low,  square,  compact  order.  From  the  breed  standpoint 
the  two  prominent  exceptions  are  the  Tamworth  and  York- 
shire breeds  of  swine.  The  American  type  of  hog  is  more 
nearly  like  the  English  type  of  beef  and  dual  purpose  cattle 
and  sheep,  i.  e.,  parallelogramic. 

The  Merino  breeds  of  sheep,  developed  for  wool  primarily, 
have  an  unusual  conformation  due  to  the  wrinkled,  uneven 
condition  of  the  skin  and  fleece.  While  the  type  of  these 
animals  is  generally  that  of  a  parallelogram,  their  unusually 
wrinkled  condition  gives  them  an  odd,  ungainly  appear- 
ance. This  formation  of  the  skin  and  fleece  has  added 
greatly  to  their  value,  however,  because  of  the  increase  in 
the  surface  on  which  wool  may  be  grown.  The  Thorough- 
bred (running)  horse,  which  is  bred  for  speed  at  the  run  exclu- 
sively, has  developed  into  a  long,  angular,  and  racy  type  of 
animal.  Likewise,  the  race-horse  type  of  the  Standardbred 
trotter  and  pacer  has  in  many  instances  developed  into  a 
light,  lithe  type  not  characteristic  of  the  road-horse  type  of 
this  breed.  With  these  exceptions  noted,  all  of  the  important 
breeds  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  swine  should  have  a 
broad,  deep,  long,  and  compact  or  close  knit  and  symmetrical 
form.  This  is  essential  in  any  breed  of  animals  developed 
for  work  or  for  the  production  of  edible  products  such  as 
beef,  pork,  or  mutton. 

Height. — Height  is  of  special  significance  in  the  horse. 
It  is  determined  by  measuring  from  the  highest  point  of 
the  withers  to  the  ground.  In  other  animals  the  height  is  a 
matter  of  sjTnmetry  in  the  correlation  of  other  parts  rather 
than  an  absolute  determination  to  a  fixed  standard,  as  in 
horses.^ 

Weight. — The  .weight  of  an  animal  varies  according  to  the 
breed,  type,  class,  individual,  age,  and  condition.     In  most 

1  In  measuring  height  the  horse  should  stand  on  a  level  surface  and  the 
measure  made  to  the  highest  point  of  the  withers.  The  legs  should  be  per- 
pendicular to  the  floor  and  parallel  with  each  other.  The  measuring 
apparatus  should  also  be  held  perpendicular  to  the  floor  and  the  cross  bar 
should  be  level.  The  shoes  should  be  taken  into  consideration.  The  actual 
height  can  be  determined  only  by  measuring  the  horse  without  shoes  or 
by  deducting  the  height  of  the  shoes. 


INDIVIDUAL  MERIT 


61 


classes  of  stock  weight  is  of  primary  consideration.  This  is 
especially  true  in  draft  horses,  beef  cattle,  swine,  and  sheep. 
Abnormal  weight  above  the  required  standard  is  a  dis- 
criminative quality.  In  judging,  the  weight  should  be 
estimated  or  its  value  fixed  according  to  the  factors  mentioned 
above.  One  of  the  principal  examples  of  a  breed  where 
height  and  weight  do  not  qualify  the  animal  for  service  is 
in  the  Shetland  pony.     The  height  to  which  this  breed 


Fig.  5. — Method  of  measuring  height  of  horse.     (Courtesy  of  Prof.  C.  S. 
Plumb,  Columbus,  Ohio.) 


attains  is  limited  to  forty-sLx  inches  in  animals  which  qualify 
for  registry  in  the  recognized  record  book.  Other  similar 
cases  might  be  cited,  but  it  is  not  considered  necessary  to 
give  them  special  consideration. 

Scale. — The  scale  of  an  animal  is  fixed  by  the  height  and 
weight  attained.  The  term  is  synomTnous  with  size  but  is 
often  used  in  designating  the  combined  quality  of  height 
and  weight. 


62  JUDGING  AND  SELECTION  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Substance. — -The  term  substance  refers  to  structure.  Gay 
defines  it  as  being  manifested  by  the  scale  of  the  animal  in 
general  and  the  amount  of  any  one  particular  tissue  such  as 
bone.  Quality  and  substance  are  not  correlated  but  more 
or  less  of  each  is  essential,  depending  upon  the  type  of  the 
animal. 

Quality. — Quality  in  an  animal  is  not  a  material  attribute. 
The  best  method  to  use  in  impressing  the  significance  of 
quality  upon  the  mind  is  to  study  two  animals  carefully 
which  have  diverging  qualifications  in  this  respect.  Where 
quality  is  clearly  evident  it  is  not  only  an  indication  of  what 
will  be  found  on  minute  examination  of  the  exterior,  but 
it  represents  also  the  character  of  the  bone,  tissue  and  flesh, 
for  example,  of  meat-producing  animals.  From  the  breeder's 
standpoint  evidences  of  quality  are  seen  in  a  fine,  clean, 
mellow  skin  which  is  pliable  and  elastic  to  the  touch.  Animals 
possessing  quality  usually  have  a  fine  clean  bone,  a  fine- 
textured  flesh,  and  a  minimum  of  waste  on  the  block  if 
produced  for  this  purpose.  In  other  than  meat-  and  wool- 
producing  animals  quality  is  manifested  in  the  clean-cut, 
smooth,  firm  conformation.  Evidence  of  the  blood  circula- 
tion is  also  usually  clearly  apparent  in  such  animals. 

In  judging  quality  the  mistake  should  not  be  made  of 
placing  an  undue  value  on  a  thin,  papery  skin,  as  such  a 
condition  does  not  represent  quality.  A  thick,  harsh, 
inelastic  skin  is  likewise  undersirable  because  it  is  usually 
accompanied  with  large,  coarse  bones,  rough,  prominent 
joints,  and  coarse-textured  flesh.  A  further  characterization 
of  quality  is  indicated  in  the  head,  shoulders,  and  tail  setting. 
The  head  should  be  clear  in  outline,  clean  and  free  from  any 
abnormal  condition  such  as  roughness,  coarse  hair,  undefined 
features  or  facial  outlines.  The  muzzle  should  be  large. yet 
indicative  of  quality.  The  shoulders  should  be  compact, 
smooth  and  evenly  covered,  except  in  the  dairy  breeds,  which 
should  have  light  shoulders  and  sharp  withers.  In  cattle, 
swine,  and  sheep  inferior  quality  is  also  indicated  by  a  rough, 
open  condition  over  the  top  of  the  shoulders.  In  the  horse 
it  is  manifested  by  a  coarse,  unsymmetrical  blending  of  the 
neck,  shoulders,  and  withers.    Taken  as  a  wdiole,  the  animal 


INDIVIDUAL  MERIT  63 

possessing  quality  shows  extreme  individuality,  clear-cut 
outlines,  fine-textured  skin,  hair  and  bone,  and  a  general 
harmonious  blending  and  symmetry  of  all  parts. 

Individuality. — Individuality  is  a  quality  or  state  peculiar  or 
distinctive  to  an  individual.  In  live  stock  judging  it  is  used 
in  a  narrower  sense  than  character,  which  is  a  supreme  breed 
mark  in  the  best  pure-bred  animals.  Character  is  thus 
used  in  signifying  the  degree  of  conformity  to  the  breed 
which  it  represents.  Individuality  conveys  the  idea  of  clear- 
cut  contour  which  distinguishes  an  animal,  not  only  from 
other  types  but  from  other  animals  of  the  same  general  type.. 
The  critical  live  stock  judge  will  quickly  select  the  animal 
in  a  class  possessing  the  greatest  individuality  because  of  its 
distinctive  or  clear-cut  lines.  This  may  be  done  regardless 
of  whether  an  animal  represents  any  particular  breed. 

A  clear  understanding  of  individuality  in  its  minutest 
sense  is  really  the  basis  of  accurate  Hve  stock  judging. 
A  student  who  can  master  and  balance  the  characteristic 
differences  among  individuals  promptly  will  usually  make  a 
successful  live  stock  critic.  It  is  these  minor  variations  in 
detecting  individuality  which  bring  out  the  contrast  between 
the  average  and  the  keen  judge  who  never  allows  a  single 
point  in  an  animal  to  pass  unnoticed.  The  most  successful 
judges  are  those  who  have  made  such  a  study  of  animal 
form  that  they  can  determine  the  gross  form  and  its  value 
by  merely  observing  a  single  part,  such  as  the  head  or  any 
other  region  of  the  body.  It  is  individuality  or  distinc- 
tiveness in  outline  and  features  which  enables  them  to 
do  so. 

Constitution. — The  term  constitution  is  significant  of 
ruggedness,  vitality  or  robustness  of  form,  duration  or 
persistency  in  performance,  and  longevity.  In  breeding 
animals  constitution  ranks  as  an  especially  important 
attribute,  as  the  use  of  strong,  vigorous  animals  is  necessary 
to  fix  this  and  other  desirable  characteristics  in  the  offspring. 
If  the  constitution  of  the  breeding  animal  is  weak  the  same 
condition  will  likely  be  transmitted  to  future  generations. 
It  is  not  so  important  to  emphasize  this  point  in  market 
animals  because  of  their  shorter  period  of  usefulness.     It 


64  JUDGING  AND  SELECTION  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

should  be  given  consideration  only  to  the  extent  which  it  is 
indicative  of  immediate  health  and  vigor. 

A  capable  judge  will  recognize  the  characteristics  indicating 
constitution  even  without  making  a  special  examination  of 
the  animal.  A  full,  broad  head,  a  large  muzzle  and  open 
nostrils,  a  full,  deep  chest  and  barrel  which  indicate  capacity, 
aptly  characterize  an  animal  with  strong  constitutional 
development.  The  reverse  characteristics,  such  as  a  long, 
narrow  head,  a  pointed  muzzle  and  small  nostrils,  a  narrow, 
shallow  chest,  and  a  long,  loosely  coupled  body  indicate  a 
decided  weakness.  Such  animals  should  never  be  used  in  a 
breeding  herd  as  they  will  neither  breed  nor  develop  into 
satisfactory  breeding  or  market  individuals.  Animals  of 
this  type  are  usually  the  result  of  indiscriminate  breeding, 
although  occasionally  they  appear  in  well-bred  herds. 
This  may  be  the  result  of  faulty  management  in  early  life. 
However,  it  is  more  often  the  result  of  some  constitutional 
fault  or  defect  in  the  ancestral  animals.  The  best  results 
can  never  be  obtained  from  a  breeding  or  market  animal 
which  is  lacking  in  the  factors  which  help  to  maintain 
the  vital  functions.  Many  animals,  however,  are  so  main- 
tained and  bred,  generation  after  generation,  only  to  add  to 
the  number  of  weak,  impotent  individuals. 

Constitution  in  the  breeding  animal  is  analogous  to 
endurance  in  the  speed  animal.  Without  it  neither  can 
perform  their  functions  satisfactorily.  While  it  is  an  attri- 
bute of  importance  in  block  animals,  it  is  of  unusual 
importance  in  breeding,  work,  or  speed  animals.  It  does 
not  matter  to  what  extent  an  animal  is  endowed  with  other 
special  functions,  unless  it  has  the  constitution  to  balance 
the  other  necessary  attributes  of  milk,  beef  or  speed,  there 
cannot  be  a  maximum  amount  of  energy  developed  or  work 
performed.  Constitution  is  of  first  and  last  importance  in 
a  breeding  animal,  not  only  to  perfect  maturity  of  its  own 
body  but  that  of  the  growing  fetus  and  those  of  future 
development.  A  dairy  cow  may  possess  a  maximum  amount 
of  quality,  the  highest  developed  nervous  temperament,  but 
unless  she  is  endowed  with  the  vitality  to  continue  the  milk- 
producing  function,  such  an  animal  is  extremely  faulty;  both' 


IXDIVIDUAL   MERIT  65 

as  a  milk-producer  and  a  reproducer  of  her  own  inherited 
attainments.  The  animal  of  low  vitality  or,  as  otherwise 
expressed,  weak  constitution,  usually  shows  evidence  of  the 
condition  in  the  eyes,  the  development  of  the  chest,  the 
size  of  the  muzzle  and  nostrils,  and  other  indications  of 
general  capacity.  When  strongly  endowed  with  constitutional 
characteristics  it  bespeaks  persistency  of  performance  and 
continuity  of  strongly  inherited  offspring. 

Capacity. — Capacity  is  bred  and  developed  in  an  animal 
the  same  as  any  other  quality  or  characteristic.  Naturally, 
animals  should  be  selected  which  have  an  inherent  ten- 
dency toward  such  development.  Animals  which  have 
small  capacity  are  usually  the  result  of  using  inferior  breed- 
ing stock,  although  they  may  occasionally  be  the  offspring 
of  exceptionally  strong  and  vigorous  breeding  animals. 
Capacity  is  indicative  either  of  breeding  or  feeding  quali- 
ties. Like  constitution,  this  factor  is  of  greater  importance 
in  the  breeding  animal  because  of  the  influence  which  it 
exerts  throughout  the  entire  period  of  usefulness  and  on 
future  generations.  A  short,  shallow-bodied  animal  makes 
an  inferior  breeder  because  of  its  inability  to  properly 
nourish  and  develop  a  strong,  vigorous  fetus.  The  cramped 
condition  of  the  animal  is  not  only  indicative  of  improper 
self-maintenance,  but  it  naturally  checks  the  development 
which  the  reproductive  system  should  convey  to  the  unborn 
animal. 

In  a  measure,  capacity  may  be  either  natural  or  acquired; 
for  example,  it  can  be  developed  by  liberal  feeding  or  retarded 
by  witholding  proper  maintenance  rations.  The  young 
animal  may  be  grown  into  a  shallow-bodied,  flat-ribbed 
individual  by  witholding  the  roughage  part  of  the  ration, 
either  wholly  or  in  part,  or  capacity  may  be  materially  in- 
creased or  developed  by  feeding  liberally  on  rich,  nutritious 
feeds.  A  clear  line  of  demarcation  should  be  drawn  between 
the  breeding  animal  and  the  one  intended  for  feeding  pur- 
poses in  estimating  the  necessity  of  capacity  requirements. 
In  either  case  it  is  important,  yet  on  the  whole  the  animal 
which  has  a  long  period  of  usefulness  should  have  capacity 
unusually  marked  in  its  development. 
5 


66  JUDGING  AND  SELECTION  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Symmetry. — The  symmetry  of  an  animal  is  dependent  on 
the  blending  of  the  individual  parts,  such  as  the  head,  neck, 
shoulders,  body,  and  quarters.  In  an  unsymmetrical  animal 
each  of  the  parts  above  named  and  the  minor  structural 
details  stand  out  independent  of  each  other.  The  head, 
for  example,  may  be  large  and  coarse  at  the  junction  with 
the  neck.    The  shoulders  may  be  abrupt  instead  of  blending 


Fig.  6. — French  Coach  stallion,  showing  symmetry  of  form. 

smoothly  into  the  body  proper.  The  coupling  may  be  long 
and,  therefore,  make  the  animal  appear  long  and  out  of 
proportion  with  the  other  parts.  The  coupling  should  not 
only  be  short  to  give  strength  but  to  add  style,  beauty,  and 
symmetry  of  form.  Symmetry  involves  a  construction  indi- 
cating that  the  parts  are  made  one  for  the  other,  instead  of 
having  an  independent  formation.  Symmetry  of  the  whole 
involves  a  complete  harmonious  blending  of  all  the  parts, 
thus  indicating  a  unified  structure. 


INDIVIDUAL  MERIT 


67 


Temperament. — Temperament  signifies  the  degree  and 
character  of  development  of  the  nervous  system.  It  is 
especially  significant  in  judging  certain  types,  such  as  the 
horse,  beef,  and  dairy  animal.  Each  type  of  live  stock  has 
peculiar  temperamental  characteristics  significant  of  their 
adaptability  to  various  specialized  purposes.  The  value  of 
the  horse  for  pleasure  or  work  is  measured  in  a  large  degree 
by  the  temperament  possessed.  Draft  animals  are  character- 
ized by  lymphatic  temperament  or  nerve  force,  while  speed 


Fig.  7. — Jersey  bull,  showing  nervous  temperament. 

horses  are  characterized  in  an  extreme  manner  in  the  highly 
developed  nervous  temperament  possessed. 

The  temperament  of  the  dairy  cow  is  likewise  of  a  nervous 
character.  Heavy  milk  production  is  largely  dependent  on 
the  lean,  spare  framework  indicative  of  a  highly  developed 
nervous  system.  The  degree  of  perfection  reached  in  dairy 
breeds  is  closely  associated  with  the  degree  of  development 
of  the  nervous  organization.  Such  a  condition  indicates 
that  the  animal  is  turning  all  of  the  food  materials,  over  and 
above  maintenance,  into  milk  production.  The  beef  animal, 
having  a  close,  compact,  smooth  form  is  characterized  by 


68  JUDGING  AND  SELECTION  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

a  IjTnphatic  temperament  which  is  just  the  reverse  of  that 
possessed  by  dairy  breeds  and  certain  types  and  breeds  of 
light  horses. 

Temperament  is  controlled  largely  by  the  development 
of  the  nervous  system.  The  breeding  of  the  animal  enters 
into  consideration  in  analj^zing  this  characteristic.  A 
running  horse,  for  example,  with  a  lymphatic  temperament 
would  be  practically  useless  on  the  track  and,  likewise,  one 
with  a  highly  developed  nervous  organization  would  be  of 
little  value  as  a  pleasure  animal.  Generally  speaking,  the 
animal  which  accumulates  the  energy  from  the  food  material 
on  its  own  body  has  a  comparatively  low  state  of  nerve  force 
or  development,  while  one  which  eliminates  the  products  of 
energy  through  milk  or  high-speed  development  is  char- 
acterized by  a  highly  developed  nervous  organization. 

Condition. — Condition  is  a  broad  term  which  is  used  to 
designate  the  amount  of  fat  which  an  animal  carries  at  any 
particular  stage  in  life.  While  fat  accumulation  is  not 
necessarily  a  requisite  of  breeding  animals,  the  acquisition 
of  fat  is  often  employed  to  bring  out  the  ultimate  or  final 
effect  in  .an  animal.  In  discussing  condition,  the  two  terms, 
natural  flesh  and  fat,  should  be  clearly  differentiated.  Natural 
flesh,  to  a  specified  degree,  is  a  requisite  of  all  animals,  speak- 
ing from  a  broad  viewpoint.  The  term  is  more  particularly 
used  in  discussing  the  flesh  merits  of  cattle.  However,  it 
may  be  very  properly  applied  in  a  broad  way  to  all  animals. 
Natural  flesh  or  muscle  is  acquired  during  the  growing  stage. 
Fat  may  be  acquired  to  a  limited  extent  during  the  same 
period.  However,  it  is  a  natural  phenomenon  of  the  matured 
animal.  The  two  terms,  fat  and  flesh,  are  often  used  inter- 
changeably. However,  a  clear  line  of  demarcation  should 
be  drawn. 

Market  Condition. — jMarket  condition  is  significant  of  the 
accumulation  of  fat  in  placing  market  or  show  animals  in 
the  best  possible  condition  to  sell  or  show  advantageously. 
While  such  animals  are  often  fattened  to  an  extreme  degree, 
this  is  not  necessarily  significant  of  overfattening  or  pam- 
pered condition.  JMarket  animals  are  put  in  high  condition 
to  improve  the  quality  of  the  finished  product.    Show  animals 


INDIVIDUAL  MERIT 


69 


are  so  handled,  not  because  of  added  value  for  breeding 
purposes,  but  rather  to  show  what  the  ultimate  result  would 
be  in  the  offspring  from  such  animals  if  finished  for  the 
block. 

Breeding  Condition. — Breeding  animals  should  be  main- 
tained in  medium  condition  for  obtaining  the  best  results. 
This  is  especially  true  if  such  animals  are  to  be  handled  by 
amateur  feeders.  The  experienced  feeder  can  take  an 
animal  which  has  been  placed  in  high  condition  and  remove 
the  excess  fat  in  such  a  way  that  the  animal  may  not  be 


Fig.  8. — Shorthorn  cow,  showing  high  or  pampered  condition  and  IjTnphatic 

temperament. 


materially  injured.  \Yhile  there  is  a  sentiment  against 
placing  breeding  animals  in  high  condition  for  show  purposes, 
it  is  not  possible  to  bring  out  the  ultimate  results  which 
may  be  obtained  unless  breeders  use  this  method  of  prepa- 
ration.   There  is  merit  in  such  a  practice  if  not  overdone. 

Pampered  Condition. — The  average  breeder  should  not 
undertake  to  breed  from  animals  which  have  been  highly  or 
excessively  fitted  for  market  or  show  purposes.  Such  a 
pampered  condition  is,  without  doubt,  detrimental  to  the 
breeding  capacity  of  any  individual.    The  period  of  usefulness 


70       JUDGING  AND  SELECTION  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

is  usually  not  only  shortened  but  in  many  instances  the 
quality  of  the  offspring  is  not  what  it  would  be  under 
ordinary  conditions.  The  varied  experience  of  the  construc- 
tive breeder  in  watching  the  process  of  development  and 
fattening  enables  him  to  determine  the  probable  underlying 
structure  with  considerable  accuracy.  A  breeder  who 
possesses  this  experience  can  often  select  a  highly  fitted 
animal  with  profit  because  he  recognizes  value  which  the 
average  person  would  fail  to  detect.  While  this  plan  of 
selection  may  be  followed  by  breeders  of  this  stamp,  it  is 
not  generally  recommended  for  the  average  stockman. 

QUALIFICATIONS  OF  BREEDING  ANIMALS. 

There  are  certain  distinctive  qualifications  required  of 
breeding  animals  which  render  them  most  useful  from  the 
viewpoint  of  the  breeder  and  the  showman. 

Breed  Character.  —  Breeding  animals,  strictly  speaking, 
are  those  of  pure  lineage  with  the  blood  lines  sufficiently 
concentrated  so  that  certain  distinctive  breed  features  are 
reproduced  in  every  detail.  Pure-bred  animals  are  char- 
acterized by  certain  features  or  breed  markings  which 
typify  or  distinguish  them  from  all  other  breeds  and  which 
are  under  the  proper  conditions  uniformily  transmitted  to 
the  offspring.  As  these  breed  features  or  markings  should 
represent  utility  qualifications,  breed  type  becomes  an 
important  factor  in  judging  pure-bred  animals.  The  term, 
breed  character,  should  be  taken  to  signify  the  characters  or 
features  which  typify  standard  representatives  of  the  breed. 
From  an  economic  standpoint  those  breed  characters  or 
features  which  qualify  from  the  practical  standpoint  are 
the  ones  which  should  be  instrumental  in  defining  the 
purpose  of  a  breed.  Unfortunately,  such  a  condition  has 
not  always  existed,  and  because  of  this  some  breeds  qualify 
in  a  measure  because  of  those  characteristics  or  markings 
which  are  not  essentially  of  value. 

Breed  character  is  a  supreme  mark  which  dominates 
all  animals  deserving  of  the  highest  rank  among  breeders. 
While  breed  character  is  of  vital  importance  in  judging 


QUALIFICATIONS  OF  BREEDING  ANIMALS  71 

pure-bred  breeding  classes,  other  characteristics  or  condi- 
tions of  significance  should  not  be  disregarded.  Judgment 
in  breeding  classes  is  passed  relative  to  the  conformity  of 
animals  to  certain  arbitrary  standards  which  have  been  fixed. 
There  should  be  a  clear-cut  conformity  to  these  breed  char- 
acteristics, otherwise  a  break  in  type  may  become  necessary. 
Breed  character  bespeaks  a  lineage  of  carefully  bred  animals 
which  a  prospective  purchaser  cannot  conscientiously  disre- 
gard in  selecting  breeding  stock.  There  is  a  special  signifi- 
cance in  animals  of  high-bred  character  which  it  is  necessary 


Fig.  9. — Breed  character  in  an  Aberdeen-Angus  cow. 

to  recognize  in  the  breeding  herd  and  in  the  show  ring. 
Every  breeding  animal  should  portray  vividly,  even  to  the 
finest  points  of  discrimination,  the  features  which  charac- 
terize or  typify  each  animal  within  the  breed  and  each  breed 
among  breeds. 

Herd  Uniformity. — There  is  no  problem  more  difficult  to 
solve  or  direct  than  that  of  breeding  a  herd  of  live  stock 
of  uniform  tj-pe  and  quality.  While  the  eliminating  process 
can  be  used  to  good  advantage  in  discarding  the  inferior 
specimens  from  the  herd,  there  still  remains  the  important 


72        JUDGING  AND  SELECTION  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

problem  of  unifying  the  various  breed  characteristics  of  the 
animals  retained.  Variation  is  the  real  source  of  breed  im- 
provement, yet  variations  occur,  not  only  for  good  qualities, 
but  for  undesirable  ones  as  well.  This  makes  the  establish- 
ment of  uniform  characteristics  doubly  difficult.  If  breeders 
practice  culhng  their  herds  closely,  the  inferior  qualities 
may  thus  be  largely  removed  and  along  with  them  the 
characteristics  which  tend  to  make  the  herd  variable  in 
transmission.  There  will  always  remain,  however,  a  certain 
natural  variation  even  among  the  better  developed  specimens 
in  the  herd. 

The  original  practice  of  breeding  and  maintaining  several 
distinct  types  of  animals  in  a  herd  kept  it  in  an  admixed 
condition.  Fortunately,  however,  this  practice  is  being 
rapidly  replaced  by  more  favorable  conditions.  The  practice 
of  maintaining  an  animal  because  of  its  excellence,  disregard- 
ing its  conformity  to  a  definite  type,  is  rapidly  giving  way, 
by  the  better  class  of  breeders,  to  a  system  which  will  allow 
greater  uniformity.  The  best  herds  have  all  been  built  up 
by  this  one-type  method  of  improvement  and  it  is  merely 
a  question  of  practising  it  rigidly  for  breeders  to  reach 
ultimate  success  in  breed  or  herd  uniformity.  These  con- 
ditions should  all  be  noted  in  a  herd  from  which  a  purchaser 
anticipates  selecting  animals  for  a  foundation. 

Adaptation. — Breeds  of  live  stock  should  be  selected  with 
special  reference  to  their  adaptation  to  the  section  in  which 
the  herd  is  to  be  established.  In  most  of  the  standard  breeds 
of  live  stock  there  is  quite  a  wide  latitude  of  adaptation, 
yet  there  are  specialized  conditions  under  which  unusual 
results  may  be  obtained.  The  Jersey  breed  of  cattle  is  well 
adapted  to  dpse  pasture  confinement,  having  been  reared 
under  such  conditions  in  their  native  home.  The  Holstein- 
Friesian  breed,  which  is  considerably  larger  than  the  Jersey, 
thrives  best  where  it  has  access  to  good  pasture  lands.  In 
Holland  where  this  breed  originated  the  farms  are  level,  and 
it  is  on  such  land  that  this  breed  reaches  its  highest  state 
of  development,  although  like  the  Jersey,  the  breed  will 
thrive  under  varying  conditions.  The  Ayrshire  breed  origi- 
nated in  northwestern  Scotland  where  the  land  is  rough, 


QUALIFICATIONS  OF  BREEDING  ANIMALS         73 

hilly,  and  the  pastures  are  scant  and  not  of  the  best  quality. 
Because  of  these  rather  unfavorable  conditions  the  Ayrshire 
has  developed  into  a  breed  which  is  especially  noted  for 
its  adaptation  to  rough,  sparse  pasturage  conditions.  In 
selecting  a  breed  of  dairy  cattle  for  a  rough,  hilly  country 
where  pasture  lands  are  not  of  the  best  quality,  the  Ayrshire 
is  credited  as  being  an  excellent  breed  to  suit  these  conditions. 

The  Hereford  has  developed  into  an  excellent  breed  for 
western  range  conditions,  largely  because  of  its  adaptability 
to  range  country  conditions.  The  Shorthorn,  although  an 
excellent  breed,  is  more  favorably  adapted  to  sections  where 
pasture  lands  are  naturally  abundant.  Usually  this  breed 
has  found  its  home  under  these  conditions  notably  in  Ken- 
tucky, Virginia,  Ohio,  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Indiana.  Although 
rightly  considered  the  cosmopolitan  breed  of  beef  cattle,  be- 
cause of  their  wide  distribution,  it  is  better  naturally  adapted 
to  conditions  like  those  mentioned. 

Confining  the  discussion  to  certain  types  of  animals,  it  is 
a  fixed  principle  that  small  breeds  of  animals,  for  example, 
are  more  thrifty  under  sparse  or  average  pasturage  conditions 
than  otherwise.  The  large  breeds  of  sheep  may  be  main- 
tained under  rather  artificial  conditions  and  attain  a  certain 
degree  of  success.  However,  they  are  very  much  better 
adapted  to  sections  where  they  have  access  to  rich,  natural 
pasture  lands.  The  same  principle  may  be  applied  to  all 
breeds  of  live  stock,  and  in  so  doing  it  will  be  found  upon 
close  study  and  observation  that  these  breeds  have  become 
disseminated  largely  according  to  this  principle. 

Breeding  Test. — If  circumstances  will  permit,  it  is  prefer- 
able to  select  breeding  animals  which  have  been  rigidly 
tried  out  in  the  herd.  This  is  impossible,  however,  with 
young  stock  which  has  not  reached  breeding  age.  The  only 
guarantee  of  breeding  qualities  which  the  purchaser  usually 
gets  with  an  individual  is  the  fact  that  the  ancestors  were 
successful  breeders  according  to  the  records.  This  is  not  an 
absolute  guarantee,  however,  'that  the  progeny  will  breed 
as  satisfactorily  as  the  parents.  The  purchaser  is  reasonably 
safe  in  selecting  breeding  animals  if  he  takes  special  pre- 
cautions to  select  the  descendants  of  animals  having  a  long 


74       JUDGING  AND  SELECTION  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

line  of  successful  breeding  ancestry.  If  these  records  are 
reinforced  with  a  strong,  vigorous  sire  and  dam,  it  is  reason- 
able to  believe  that  the  individual  selected  will  prove  the 
equal  of  its  ancestors.  If  extremely  young  stock  is  selected 
special  stress  should  be  placed  on  this  point,  largely  because 
of  immaturity.  In  applying  the  breeding  test  the  greatest 
care  should  be  exercised  in  mating  the  untried  individuals 
to  those  which  have  thoroughly  proved  their  worth  in  the 
breeding  herd. 

Productiveness. — Productiveness  is  a  measure  of  breeding 
value  as  applied  to  prepotency  in  the  male  and  prolificacy 
in  the  female.  Prepotency  refers  to  strength  and  surety 
of  transmission  of  the  qualities  inherent  in  the  sire,  while 
prolificacy  refers  to  the  number  of  animals  in  the  progeny 
and  the  continuity  of  transmission,  especially  in  swine 
and  sheep.  The  term  regularity  may  be  more  logically 
used  in  connection  with  horses  and  cattle.  These  qualities 
are  important  in  building  up  a  herd  or  flock  and  should  be 
given  the  most  careful  consideration.  Breeding  animals  which 
are  selected  without  having  obtained  a  knowledge  of  their 
breeding  record  from  this  standpoint  may  not  always  prove 
their  worth.  However,  if  for  several  generations  the  breed- 
ing record  shows  a  high  measure  of  productiveness,  it  is  only 
natural  to  assume  that  the  same  characteristics  will  be  con- 
centrated in  the  immediate  progeny. 

Natural  Thrift. — Natural  thrift  is  an  inherent  quality  of 
the  individual  herd  or  breed.  Naturally  it  is  of  greatest 
importance  in  the  breed.  Individual  animals  in  certain 
instances  often  surpass  other  members  of  the  herd  or  breed 
in  size,  quality,  form,  and  thrift.  Such  animals,  provid- 
ing their  unusual  growth  and  development  does  not  indi- 
cate an  abnormal  or  undesirable  condition  are  in  strong 
demand.  This  is  a  natural  consequence,  since  such  animals 
are  productive  of  exceptional  profits,  both  from  the  breeding 
and  market  standpoint.  The  blood  lines  of  the  runt  pig 
are  the  same  as  the  larger  and  more  vigorous  litter  mates. 
This  is  a  condition  illustrating  the  variation  which  may  exist 
in  different  individuals. 

The  pedigree  may  place  the  stamp  of  approval  on  an 
animal  or  on  a  herd,  yet  if  the  individuals  are  not  potent  or 


QUALIFICATIONS  OF  BREEDING  ANIMALS         75 

naturally  thrifty  blood  lines  are  essentially  of  no  value. 
Whether  this  condition  is  termed  individuality  or  natural 
thrift,  it  is  of  extreme  importance  in  selecting  any  animal. 
The  close,  compact  horse  with  the  smooth,  symmetrical, 
round-turned  body  is  naturally  an  easy  keeper.  Such  an 
animal  carries  its  own  stamp  of  individuality  or  natural 
thrift.  While  the  breeder  should  naturally  be  interested 
in  the  pedigree,  the  individual,  herd  or  breed  attainments 
should  not  be  disregarded. 

Age  Limitations. — Age  qualifications  are  important,  especi- 
ally with  breeding  animals  which  are  to  be  retained  for  a 
considerable  time  in  the  herd.  Many  breeders  make  the 
mistake  of  selling  their  best  animals  because  they  have 
supposedly  passed  their  real  period  of  usefulness.  A  breeding 
animal  is  valuable  as  long  as  it  continues  to  produce  meri- 
torious animals,  no  matter  what  the  age  attained.  Master- 
piece, for  example,  one  of  the  great  boars  of  the  Berkshire 
breed,  was  used  actively  until  nine  years  of  age.  After  the 
breeding  value  of  an  animal  is  clearly  established  it  is 
unwise  to  discard  it  from  the  herd  merely  because  of 
advancing  age. 

It  is  always  preferable  to  purchase  an  animal  in  its  prime 
as  soon  after  its  breeding  qualities  have  been  tested  as 
possible.  If  the  animal  proves  to  be  a  valuable  breeder  the 
purchaser  has  the  opportunity  of  getting  the  full  benefit 
of  the  offspring  possessing  the  blood  lines  of  the  individual. 
This  is  extremely  important,  as  a  few  good  animals  from  one 
extraordinary  breeder  are  far  more  valuable  than  a  much 
larger  number  from  one  or  more  inferior  individuals.  Ex- 
perience has  taught  that  a  promising  animal  should  never 
be  sacrificed  without  having  given  it  a  reasonable  trial  in  the 
breeding  herd.  Some  excellent  examples  may  be  cited  where 
dairy  cows  have  not  only  themselves  been  placed  in  the 
advanced  registry  when  seventeen  or  eighteen  years  of  age, 
but  they  also  have  progeny  which  w'on  distinction  either  as 
breeders  or  because  of  their  ease  of  meeting  advanced  registry 
qualifications.  These  facts  strongly  indicate  that  a  breeding 
animal  should  not  be  sacrificed  as  long  as  the  previous 
valuable  records  are  being  duplicated,  regardless  of  the  age 
of  the  animal. 


76        JUDGING  AND  SELECTION  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Pedigree  and  Individuality. — Pedigree  and  individuality 
should  always  receive  iirst  consideration  in  selecting  pure- 
bred live  stock.  Animals  intended  for  meat,  milk  or  work 
alone  are  judged  entirely  according  to  their  individuality. 
The  lineage  of  the  pure-bred  animal  is  very  important, 
yet  individuality  should  not  be  disregarded.  A  purchaser 
can  make  no  greater  mistake  than  to  select  a  pure-bred 
animal  on  pedigree  alone,  as  the  pure  breeds  of  live  stock 
contain  some  very  inferior  individuals.  If  the  ancestors 
of  an  animal  have  all  been  successful  breeders,  and  the 
individual  corresponds  closely  to  the'  information  contained 
in  the  pedigree,  such  an  animal  will  usually  prove  to  be 
a  successful  breeder.  The  individual  is  often  considered 
favorably  without  placing  proper  emphasis  on  the  pedigree. 
This  is  a  mistake  even  more  serious  than  the  former.  Indi- 
viduals may  be  very  impressive  on  conformation  alone,  yet 
uniform  characteristics  may  not  always  be  transmitted. 

Breeding  animals  are  often  selected  on  individuality 
alone.  Others  are  selected  on  pedigree  alone.  These  two 
factors,  pedigree  and  individualtiy,  should  be  evenly  balanced 
to  get  the  most  valuable  breeding  animal.  If  the  pedigree 
meets  with  approval  and  the  individual  is  lacking  in  some 
essential  characteristics,  such  as  constitution,  vitality,  or 
quality,  the  chances  are  that  the  offspring  will  be  so  char- 
acterized. This  emphasizes  the  point  that  a  pure-bred 
animal  may,  because  of  unfavorable  conditions,  develop  into 
a  very  inferior  individual,  which  will  in  turn  transmit  unde- 
sirable characteristics  to  the  progeny.  A  well-constituted 
individual  may  have  every  indication  of  possessing  prepotent 
breeding  qualities,  yet  some  weakness  occurring  in  its  ances- 
tors renders  it  unable  to  transmit  the  desirable  individual 
qualities. 

The  only  safe  method  to  pursue  in  selecting  breeding 
animals  is  to  pay  strict  attention  to  both  of  these  factors. 
Constructive  breeders  have  been  very  ardent  in  correlating 
these  factors  and  the  animals  which  they  have  succeeded 
in  producing  are  evidence  of  the  wisdom  of  such  a  practice. 
Amos  Cruikshank,  in  developing  the  Scotch  type  of  Short- 
horn, did  place  special  emphasis  on  the  individual  because 


QUALIFICATIONS  OF  BREEDING  ANIMALS  77 

he  was  looking  for  a  low-set  type  of  animal  with  ample 
chest  capacity  and  a  deep,  thick  body.  His  idea  in  selecting 
a  healthy,  robust  animal  was  to  get  one  which  would  stand 
the  rigorous  winters  of  northern  Scotland.  It  was  necessary 
to  select  a  rugged  animal  for  this  purpose  and  consequently, 
from  his  standpoint,  individuality  was  placed  ahead  of  pedi- 
gree, although  only  for  the  reasons  stated.  Good  judgment 
ordinarily  directs  emphasis  on  both  these  factors.    . 

Maturity.  —  ^Maturity,  properly  speaking,  signifies  the 
period  at  which  an  animal  reaches  full  development  in  bone 
and  muscle.  From  the  market  standpoint  a  mature  animal 
may  not  have  reached  or  attained  full  growth  or  develop- 
ment. Markets  make  certain  demands  for  animals  of  a 
specified  weight  and  condition ;  therefore  the  term  maturity 
is  often  applied  to  animals  in  proper  condition  to  meet  the 
demands  of  these  markets.  ^laturity,  as  applied  to  the 
breeding  animal,  signifies  full  growth  and  development  in 
every  respect  in  height,  weight,  form,  constitution,  and 
utility.  A  horse  is  considered  fully  mature  at  four  years  of 
age,  a  bull  or  cow  at  three,  and  swine,  sheep,  and  goats  at 
two.^  Many  animals,  however,  reach  this  age  without  having 
attained  normal  maturity  or  development. 

This  problem  is  of  vital  concern  in  selecting  breeding 
animals.  Any  animal  which  is  purchased  for  breeding  pur- 
poses should  have  attained  its  proper  degree  of  maturity, 
considering  age,  at  time  of  purchase.  Development  which  is 
lost  through  improper  care,  feeding,  or  management  devi- 
talizes a  breeding  animal  to  a  degree  equal  to  the  deficiency 
in  maturity.  The  animal  used  for  reproductive  purposes 
should  have  attained  full  development,  although  the  progeny 
is  to  be  placed  on  the  open  market  before  normal  maturity 
is  reached.  This  will  insure  maximum  growth  and  develop- 
ment up  to  the  time  the  animal  is  placed  on  the  market. 
Breeding  animals  which  are  small,  weak,  and  immature 
in  stature,  produce  unprofitable  market  animals,  because 
market  maturity  is  attained  at  a  maximum  cost  on  such 
animals,  due  to  the  failure  of  the  ancestors  to  transmit 
this   normally   rapid   early   development. 

^  Show  yard  classification,  except  mature  milking  form  in  dairy  cattle, 
is  specified  as  five  years, 


78         JUDGING  AND  SELECTION  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

SUGGESTIONS  ON  SELECTION. 

In  the  selection  of  animals,  especially  for  breeding  purposes, 
there  are  special  points  of  significance  on  which  more  than 
the  usual  stress  should  be  placed.  More  attention  should 
be  given  to  the  breeder  and  his  methods,  the  adaptability 
of  his  animals,  the  uniformity  of  the  breeding  qualities, 
and  the  particular  lines  followed  in  developing  the  herd. 
These  are  points  specifically  differentiated  from  the  methods 
and  practices  used  in  judging  or  depicting  the  best  indi- 
viduals. 

Breeder. — In  selecting  breeding  animals  it  is  a  judicious 
practice  to  purchase  from  a  breeder  who  has  a  substantial 
reputation  for  producing  high-class  animals  and  selling  them 
for  what  they  are  represented  to  be  in  the  pedigree.  The 
pedigree  of  an  animal  is  no  more  reliable  than  the  breeder 
who  furnishes  it.  Breeders  who  have  made  the  greatest 
success  in  their  work  are  those  who  have  bred  unswervingly 
toward  a  specific  ideal  and  kept  permanent  breeding  records, 
showing  not  only  the  lines  of  ancestry,  but  also  the  value  of 
all  individuals  in  the  herd  or  flock.  This  permits  close 
culling  and  the  maintenance  of  a  high  standard  in  the  herd. 

Breeders  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  the  true  con- 
structive breeder  and  the  dealer  or  vendor  whose  operations 
are  largely  limited  to  a  multiplication  of  individuals.  The 
former  type  should  be  patronized,  as  their  animals  and  first- 
hand statements  concerning  them  are  more  dependable  than 
from  breeders  of  the  other  sort.  This  is  an  important  con- 
sideration in  determining  where  the  initial  start  in  the  pure- 
bred or  even-grade  herd  will  be  obtained.  The  best  bred 
animals  originated  with  breeders  of  the  constructive  type. 
While  few  live  stock  breeders  have  attained  the  position 
deserving  of  this  distinction,  they  should  be  patronized, 
whenever  accessible,  as  the  vendor  of  live  stock  is  ordinarily 
not  a  constructive  breeder.  The  purchaser  should  therefore 
take  every  precaution  in  determining  the  character  and 
reliability  of  the  breeder  and  the  desirability  of  the  animals 
which  are  selected  from  the  herd. 

Pedigrees  should  be  carefully  considered,  as  every  breeding 


SUGGESTIONS  ON  SELECTION  79 

animal  should  have  not  only  individuality  but  a  pedigree 
showing  them  to  trace  at  least  for  four  or  five  generations 
to  strong  and  unmistakable  parentage.  The  individuals  in  the 
pedigree  should  possess  qualities  such  as  size,  constitution, 
prepotency,  and  prolificacy.  These  are  the  things  which 
make  a  breeding  animal  valuable.  If  the  records  have  been 
properly  kept  all  of  this  information  can  be  obtained.  The 
latter  type  of  breeder  mentioned,  however,  does  not  main- 
tain such  records,  and  for  this  reason  the  better  qualified 
breeder  should  be  sought. 

Lineage  of  Animals. — Lineage  is  analogous  to  the  pedigree 
of  an  animal.     Reference  is  made  here,  however,  to  the 


Fig.  10. — Select  breeding  sheep  as  well  as  all  other  kinds  of  live  stock 
under  field  conditions  where  the  sire,  dam,  and  offspring  may  be  examined. 
(Photograph  by  author.) 

immediate  ancestry  on  which  the  prospective  purchaser 
may  make  a  critical  examination  to  determine  their  probable 
desirable  or  undesirable  transmitting  qualities.  This 
examination  is  seldom  carried  out  in  practice  beyond  the 
sire  and  dam  because  the  grandsires,  grandams,  and  other 
ancestors  further  removed,  have  usually  either  died,  gone 
into  other  herds,  or  passed  their  period  of  active  usefulness 
and  have  therefore  been  eliminated  from  the  herd.  A  large 
amount  of  valuable  information  may  be  obtained  from  the 
immediate  sire  and  dam.  Their  type  can  be  studied  closely, 
their  disposition,  quality,  constitution,  and  all  other  external 


80       JUDGING  AND  SELECTION  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

factors  which  constitute  the  desirable  breeding  animah  Aside 
from  their  external  characteristics  their  productiveness,  uni- 
formity of  breeding,  and  the  persistence  with  which  these 
qualities  are  maintained  may  be  studied. 

One  of  the  best  examples  of  this  is  in  the  dairy  cow  where 
it  is  not  only  a  question  of  studying  the  animal  and  her 
ancestors  from  the  standpoint  of  type,  but  also  the  yearly 
milk  and  butter  records  of  the  individual,  her  ancestry, 
and  even  her  progeny.  This  serves  as  a  useful  guide  in 
selecting  the  progeny  from  animals  in  established  herds. 
It  is  of  special  value  to  the  prospective  purchaser  to  study 
the  type  of  the  animal  along  with  the  ancestral,  breeding 
and  producing  records.  This  serves  as  a  double  guarantee 
of  the  usefulness  of  the  younger,  untried  breeding  animals 
selected.  In  beef  breeds,  it  is  impossible  to  have  access  to 
the  present  records  of  the  animal  because  productiveness 
and  profit  from  beef  animals  are  measured  by  the  value 
of  the  animals  resulting  at  maturity.  The  immediate 
ancestral  individualities  and  their  performance  records  may 
be  studied,  however,  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  other  con- 
siderations mentioned. 

Healthfulness. — In  passing  judgment  on  stock  in  the  show 
ring  or  elsewhere,  it  is  not  always  possible  to  determine  the 
condition  of  the  animal  from  the  standpoint  of  general 
healthfulness.  Unless  there  are  unmistakable  indications 
of  unhealthfulness  or  lack  of  vigor,  the  judge  or  purchaser 
does  not  give  such  matters  consideration,  his  work  covering 
the  rating  of  the  animals  according  to  their  present  intrinsic 
value.  In  selecting  live  stock  for  breeding  or  feeding  pur- 
poses, this  is  a  matter  of  vital  consideration  and  more 
especially  of  animals  selected  for  the  former  purpose. 

Breeding  animals  which  are  expected  to  reproduce  for  a 
period  of  years  should  be  naturally  healthy  and  vigorous. 
This  has  become  of  even  greater  importance,  since  animals 
are  housed  under  more  artificial  conditions  than  formerly,  and 
are  therefore  more  likely  to  contract  contagious  or  infectious 
diseases. 

In  selecting  stock  for  breeding  purposes,  the  condition  of 
the  individuals  may  be  used  as  a  guide  in  most  cases,  although 


SUGGESTIONS  ON  SELECTION  81 

there  are  some  diseases,  especially  tuberculosis,  which  can- 
not usually  be  detected  by  a  casual  examination.  Some  of 
the  worst  affected  tuberculosis  specimens  are  those  which 
have  on  gross  examination  shown  the  least  indications  of  the 
trouble.  This  is  one  of  the  few  diseases  which  may  seriously 
affect  the  vital  organs  or  inner  structure  of  the  animal 
without  first  making  an  exterior  impression.  Even  in 
an  advanced  stage  there  may  not  be  sufficient  evidence 
to  detect  it.  The  purchaser  should  have  the  tuberculin  test 
applied  by  a  competent  veterinarian  who  can  thus  determine 
whether  the  disease  is  in  the  system.  Other  diseases  should 
be  detected  before  the  purchase  is  made  and  thereby  save 
time  and  multiplication  of  troubles  in  the  herd. 

Breed  Selection. — In  selecting  a  breed  of  stock  the  pur- 
chaser should  have  a  definite  idea  of  the  kind  of  live  stock 
farming  which  it  is  desired  to  follow.  Breeds  have  been 
developed  along  specialized  lines  for  performing  definite 
kinds  of  work.  Practically  all  of  them  may  be  grouped 
into  certain  standard  types.  The  prominent  breeds  of  the 
draft  t\-pe  of  horse,  for  example,  include  the  Percheron, 
Belgian,  Clydesdale,  and  Shire.  These  breeds  have  all  been 
developed  especially  for  draft  purposes.  However,  not  all 
of  them  are  equally  well  adapted  to  the  varying  conditions 
of  work,  soil,  feed,  and  climate.  Here  is  where  breed  selection 
should  receive  important  consideration.  Certain  individuals 
of  any  of  these  breeds  may  perform  their  work  very  satis- 
factorily under  all  conditions.  Breeds  as  a  whole,  however, 
will  be  more  successful  when  they  are  used  under  the  con- 
ditions in  which  they  were  originally  bred  and  developed. 

The  question  is  often  asked  concerning  the  best  breed  to 
select.  The  answer  depends  entirely  on  the  particular 
conditions  of  soil,  feed  and  climate  existing  in  the  section 
as  well  as  the  local  conditions  on  the  farm.  There  is  no 
rigid  rule  which  can  be  followed  in  selecting  a  breed  of  live 
stock  for  a  specific  purpose. 

In  making  a  selection,  individual  likes  and  dislikes  should 

be  considered  and  should  be  properly  balanced  with  the 

other   important   points.      After   the   type   of   the   animal 

and  the  breed  from  this  type  is  fully  decided  upon  the 

6 


82         JUDGING  AND  SELECTION  OF  LIVE  STOCK  . 

man  becomes  an  important  factor.  Not  as  much  depends 
on  the  breed  after  these  factors  have  been  determined  as  the 
kind  of  care  and  management  which  will  be  given  the  indi- 
vidual or  herd. 

Established  Herds. — Animals  purchased  from  old  estab- 
lished herds  usually  have  a  higher  intrinsic  value  than 
individuals  of  apparently  equal  qualifications  from  a  herd 
of  shorter  duration.  It  is  better  to  select  animals  from  a 
herd  which  has  made  a  permanent  reputation  rather  than 
from  one  which  has  only  attained  a  few  years  of  superficial 
success.  If  more  animals  were  so  purchased  from  breeders 
who  maintain  a  single-type  standard  the  various  breeds 
of  live  stock  would  advance  more  rapidly  than  at  present. 
While  it  would  not  be  possible  for  the  few  old-established 
breeders  of  live  stock  to  supply  the  numerous  calls,  an  effort 
to  patronize  them  would  of  necessity  place  the  live  stock 
breeding  industry  on  a  higher  plane. 

The  veteran  breeder  of  pure-bred  animals  should  receive 
greater  commendation,  as  breeders  of  this  stamp  are  usually 
suJSficiently  far-sighted  to  see  that  an  extraordinary  animal 
is  never  placed  in  the  hands  of  an  inexperienced  breeder. 
One  herd  so  started  which  proves  to  be  a  failure  is  very 
detrimental  to  the  best  interests  of  the  breed.  One  unsuccess- 
ful herd  is  responsible  for  keeping  a  great  many  otherwise 
successful  men  out  of  the  business. 

The  average  man  can  breed  any  number  of  inferior  animals 
which  his  financial  condition  will  justify,  but  to  produce 
successful  herd  headers  is  a  problem  which  only  the  best 
breeders  have  been  able  to  accomplish.  When  buying 
from  one  of  these  old-established  herds,  regardless  of  whether 
it  is  intact,  there  is  reasonable  assurance  that  the  purchaser 
is  getting  good  individuals  with  strong,  pure-bred  lineage, 
individuality,  and  quality. 

Herd  Records. — ^The  dairy  cow  is  the  principal  animal 
where  the  real  productiveness  can  be  actually  measured. 
It  is  unfortunate  from  the  standpoint  of  practical  herd 
improvement  that  the  capacity  of  all  farm  animals  cannot 
be  measured  or  determined  in  this  way.  Endurance  or  speed 
records  and  block  tests  are  the  only  other  real  determinations 


SUGGESTIONS  ON  SELECTION  83 

which  can  be  made  on  an  animal.  Dairy  records  are  of  value, 
depending  on  the  length  of  time  the  tests  are  conducted. 
Weekly  or  even  monthly  tests  should  not  be  used  in  estimat- 
ing or  determining  the  value  of  an  animal.  The  variation 
in  the  lactation  period  of  dairy  cattle  is  so  great  that  only 
tests  conducted  for  yearly  periods  or  longer  should  be  given 
absolute  credence.  Such  a  test  furnishes  the  average  pro- 
duction from  the  high  to  the  low  point  in  lactation  and, 
consequently,  the   average    ability    in    productiveness.      A 


iik 

^ 

|*v 

mm 

^A 

^gg 

1^  V^^M 

^^Hr                   M 

ainiiWi'iB--jg^  ^ 

■  ^d^BKr^-^ 

3 

Fig.  11. — Ayrshire  cow  with  a  record  of  13,789  pounds  of  milk  and 
564.39  pounds  of  butter  fat  in  one  year.  Not  an  exceptionally  high  record 
but  a  good  standard  of  production. 

record  taken  from  a  dairy  animal  in  the  early  stages  of 
lactation  represents  an  abnormal  or  unnatural  condition. 
Any  one  purchasing  an  animal  with  a  record  so  determined 
is  usually  disappointed  in  the  ultimate  results.  Oftentimes 
animals  with  large  early  lactation  records  are  non-continuous 
producers  and  therefore  unprofitable  to  the  stockmen  or 
dairymen.  A  record  based  on  a  low  productive  period  may 
likewise  show  apparent  inferiority  when  an  average  record 
for  a  year  would  show  such  an  animal  to  be  an  acceptable 
producer.    These  tests  should  be  made  at  a  normal  period  of 


84 


JUDGING  AND  SELECTION  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


SUGGESTIONS  ON  SELECTION  85 

life  for  a  siiflBcient  length  of  time  and  by  accurate  methods. 
When  made  in  this  way  their  value  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated to  the  stockman. 

Animals  descending  from  sires  and  dams  with  accredited 
records  have  the  predisposition  to  high  production.  How- 
ever, in  some  cases  they  may  fail  to  respond  satisfactorily 
to  the  test.  This  is  usually  not  true,  yet  the  test  should 
be  continued  to  ascertain  doubtful  specimens.  Young 
animals  should  be  given  reasonable  latitude  for  increased 
production  when  mature  form  is  reached.  In  the  authen- 
ticated tests  supervised  by  the  breed  associations  a  scale 
or  standard  for  animals  of  various  ages  is  maintained.  Due 
allowance  should  be  made  for  the  undeveloped  form  of  the 
animal. 

Endurance  or  Speed  Records.^The  American  Standard- 
bred  horse  and  the  Thoroughbred  (running)  horse  are  the 
only  examples,  other  than  the  dairy-cow  test  and  the  block, 
test,  where  the  actual  measure  of  value  of  the  individual 
can  be  determined.  A  speed  record  is  the  primary  measure 
of  a  Standardbred  animal.  The  Standardbred  Trotting 
Association  maintains  two  distinct  standards  for  measuring 
the  value  of  the  trotter  and  the  pacer.  Certain  provisions 
are  made  therein  whereby  an  animal  may  enter  the  record 
under  different  requirements.  ^Yhile  there  is  greater  latitude 
in  the  method  of  standardization  than  that  used  by  dairy 
record  associations,  the  results  all  lead  to  the  same  end,  a 
known  fixed  efficiency  for  performing  work. 

Although  tried  animals  always  command  greater  values, 
the  money  so  expended  is  for  a  good  purpose,  not  only  to  the 
individual  and  the  herd  but  to  the  breed  as  well.  The 
high  speed  records  acquired  by  the  Standardbred  animal  are 
the  result  of  breeding  and  training  to  a  fixed  standard. 
Successive  lowering  of  records  has  been  achieved  by  persistent 
methods  of  improvement.  Selection  of  animals  for  speed 
purposes  should,  like  the  dairy  animal,  be  based  on  health, 
form,  capacity,  and  repetition  of  records  under  normal 
conditions. 

Block  Tests.— The  ultimate  value  of  a  finished  meat 
animal  is  obtained  by  the  block  test.    The  dressing  percentage 


86 


JUDGING  AND  SELECTION  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


can  thereby  be  obtained,  the  relative  proportions  of  bone, 
lean  meat,  fat  and  other  tissues,  and  the  quality  of  the 


Fig.  13. — Prime  or  standing  rib,  front  view.     (Photograph  by  author.) 


Fig.  14:— Pi 


-landing  rib,  rear  view.     (Photograph  by  author.) 


product.     Unfortunately,  a  test  of  this  kind  is  of  indirect 
value  to  the  breeder.    If  such  determinations  could  be  made 


SUGGESTIONS  ON  SELECTION 


87 


in  the  live  animal  they  would  be  of  greater  practical  value. 
Even  under  the  conditions  of  the  test,  however,  information 
of  this  character  is  of  great  value  to  stock  breeders.  It 
represents  the  ultimate  attainment  of  animals  and  can 
therefore  be  applied  indirectly  in  producing  other  animals 
of  like  qualifications. 

Breeders'  Fads. — All  breeders  of  live  stock  have  certain 
utility  requirements  which  should  be  bred  and  retained, 
regardless  of  predominating  fads  and  changing  conditions. 
This  should  be  done  notwithstanding  that  some  breeders 
demand  useless  or  fancy  points.     Breeders  of  live  stock 


%bi.J^5"' 


Fig.  15. — Loins,  showing  marbling  and  finish.  The  rib  and  loin  cuts 
figure  prominently  in  value  in  the  block  test.      (Photograph  by   author.) 

as  a  class  are  not  responsible  for  the  development  of  useless 
qualities.  Absurd  type  standards  have  been  maintained, 
however,  in  some  breeds  largely  to  the  detriment  or  develop- 
ment of  useful  or  utility  points.  The  experienced  live  stock 
judge  will  usually  rate  these  points  on  their  merit.  In  a 
close  decision,  all  other  conditions  being  equal,  the  animal 
possessing  the  fancy  points  would  receive  first  consideration. 
If  there  was  a  decided  difterence  in  favor  of  the  utility 
points,  the  animal  possessing  the  greatest  merit  from  this 
viewpoint  should  be  given  a  first  rating. 

In  judging  live  stock,  either  for  breeding  or  direct  market 
purposes,  the  essential  factors  considered  should  be  the  adapt- 
ability  of   the   animals   to  their  ultimate  use.      Breeders' 


88         JUDGING  AND  SELECTION  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

fads  and  fancies,  while  of  temporary  value  and  beauty, 
usually  lead  to  ultimate  failure  in  breed  development.  The 
breeder  who  can  retain  the  useful  qualities  in  his  herd  and 
incorporate  prevailing  fancies  may  afford  to  do  so.  When 
something  must  be  sacrificed,  however,  it  should  be  the 
fads  and  fancies  which  serve  no  real  useful  purpose.  Breeders 
who  are  classed  as  constructive  in  their  methods  are  the 
men  who  have  pursued  the  lines  of  utility.  Their  ideal 
of  animal  character  and  usefulness  which  would  eventually 
be  in  demand  was  portrayed  ten,  twenty,  and  fifty  years 
hence.  Men  of  this  character  have  made  the  useful  breeds 
of  live  stock. 

The  breeder  who  has  clamored  to  reach  the  topmost 
standard  of  popularity  entirely  disregarding  breed  useful- 
ness has  left  nothing  to  his  credit  in  breed  history.  One 
of  the  most  convincing  arguments  against  fads  is  the 
generally  recognized  popularity  of  certain  breed  colors. 
Why  one  animal,  family  or  breed  should  be  better  because 
of  a  peculiar  fascinating  color  scheme  is  usually  unsatis- 
factorily answered.  Certain  colors  or  combinations  of 
colors  may  be  more  pleasing  to  certain  classes  of  breeders, 
yet  any  requirement  or  quality  which  does  not  add  to  the 
actual  value  of  an  animal  as  a  breeder,  on  the  block,  or  for 
work,  is  a  destructive  attribute  or  character.  The  true 
constructive  policy  which  has  been  followed  by  those  breeders 
aiming  at  continuous  improvement  will  remain  prominent 
in  raising  the  standard  of  value  in  the  breeds  of  live  stock. 


CHAPTER   VI. 
JUDGING  HORSES. 

FUNDAMENTAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 

Uses. — Before  placing  a  value  on  a  horse  or  giving  it  a 
rating  in  the  show  ring  or  otherwise  it  is  necessary  to  have 
a  definite  knowledge  of  the  particular  character  or  kind  of 
work  to  be  performed.  The  horse,  like  the  dairy  animal, 
has  a  specialized  function  or  work.  In  the  former  this  is 
dependent  largely  on  locomotion  in  one  or  more  of  its  various 
phases.  Whatever  the  character  of  work  to  be  performed, 
whether  for  draft,  for  racing  or  for  pleasure  purposes,  the 
degree  of  perfection  of  the  organization,  which,  either  in  its 
parts  or  as  a  whole,  is  responsible  for  locomotion,  measures 
the  value  of  an  animal. 

Block  animals  may  be  temporarily  or  permanently  im- 
paired in  structure  and  still  possibly  render  an  acceptable 
service  to  mankind  in  meat  production.  This  is  essentially 
true  under  certain  conditions,  considering  the  comparatively 
short  period  of  usefulness  of  the  block  animals.  While  in 
the  breeding  classes  of  block  animals  locomotion  is  impor- 
tant, it  is  secondary  to  other  considerations,  and  therefore 
of  less  importance  than  in  the  horse.  If  the  structure  of 
the  horse  is  so  injured  through  disease,  accident,  or  from 
unsoundness,  or  the  conformation  is  faulty,  either  in  body 
or  limb,  it  reacts  directly  and  most  forcibly  on  the  value 
of  that  animal  for  any  specialized  purpose.  Speaking  from 
a  broad  viewpoint,  a  horse  must  work  to  be  useful,  and 
to  work  continuously  and  satisfactorily  to  the  maximum 
capacity  calls  for  a  well-balanced  individual  in  body,  limb, 
and  mental  attainments. 

A  proper  study  of  the  horse  necessitates  a  knowledge  of 
the  structure  responsible  for  the  activities  in  the  organization 

(89) 


90 


JUDGING  HORSES 


F  UNDAMENTAL    CONSIDER  A  TIOXS 


91 


of  the  horse  on  which  limited  or  maximum  production  of 
work  depends.  Manifestly,  for  a  horse  to  do  his  greatest 
and  most  satisfactory  service  requires  a  perfect  organization, 
which  is  known  or  determined  only  by  a  detailed  study  of 
type  and  conformation  and  their  correlation  in  service. 

Structure  Analogous  with  that  of  Man.^  —  The  structure 
of  the  horse,  so  far  as  bones,  joints  and  muscles  are  concerned 
is,  with  a  few  minor  exceptions,  very  closely  analogous  to 
the  structure  of  man,  provided  that  man  assumes  the  hori- 
zontal and  quadrupedal  position,  and  rests  on  the  tips  of  his 
fingers  and  toes.  The  horse  has  no  collar  bone,  the  union 
between  trunk  and  anterior  extremities  being  wholly  muscu- 
lar, and  the  relative  length  of  forelegs  and  hindlegs  is  such  as 
to  maintain  the  body  in  a  perfectly  horizontal,  rather  than  an 
inclined,  attitude.  He  has  one  digit  instead  of  five  and  rests 
only  on  the  last  segment  of  it,  so  that  the  wrist  corresponds 
to  the  horse's  knee,  the  knuckle  to  his  fetlock  joint  and  the 
three  phalanges  of  the  finger  to  his  first  and  second  pastern 
and  pedal  bones.  Likewise,  the  knee  of  the  man  is  the 
stifle  of  the  horse,  the  calf  of  his  leg  the  gaskin  of  the  horse, 
his  heel  the  horse's  hock,  and  so  on  as  in  the  foreleg.  As 
the  man  raises  his  weight  well  up  on  his  toes  and  feels  the 
tension  of  the  muscles  of  the  thigh  and  lower  leg  he  can  well 

1  Gay,  Principles  and  Practice  of  Judging  Live  Stock. 


EXPLANATION    OF   FIG.    16. 


1— Mouth. 

2— Nostrils. 

3— Nose. 

4 — Face. 

5 — Eye. 

6 — Forehead. 

7 — Ears. 

8— Poll. 

9— Throat-latch. 
10 — Jaw. 
11— Chin. 
12 — -Windpipe. 
13— Neck. 
14— Crest. 


15 — Withers. 

16 — Shoulder  bed. 

17 — Breast. 

18— Shoulder. 

19 — Forearm. 

20 — Knees. 

21 — Canons. 

22 — Fetlock  joints. 

23 — Pasterns. 

24— Feet. 

25 — Feather. 

251 — Elbow. 

26— Flank. 

27 — Heart  girth. 

28— Back. 


29 — Loin. 

30— Hip  bone. 

31 — Coupling. 

32— Ribs. 

33 — Belly  or  underline. 

34— Hindflank. 

35— Stifle. 

36— Thigh. 

37 — Buttocks. 

38— Croup. 

39— Tail. 

40 — Quarters. 

41 — Gaskin      or      lower 

thigh. 
42 — Hocks. 


92  JUDGING  HORSES 

understand  what  takes  place  when  the  horse  "lifts"  in  the 
starting  or  moving  of  a  load  or  in  merely  projecting  his  own 
body  forward  in  locomotion. 

Mechanical  Structured — The  structure  of  the  horse,  mechan- 
ically considered,  consists  of  a  trunk  suspended  by  an  arch, 
the  vertebral  column,  supported  at  each  end  by  four  vertical 
columns,  the  legs,  the  anatomical  features  of  which  have 
already  been  described.  Greater  weight  is  borne  on  the 
forelegs  because  the  appended  head  and  neck  bring  the  centre 
of  gravity  well  forward  of  the  centre  of  the  body.  The 
arrangement  by  which  the  body  is  slung  between  the  two 
forelegs  by  the  great  pectoral  muscles  and  the  slope  of 
shoulder  and  pastern  provide  for  the  supporting  of  this 
weight,  especially  during  locomotion,  with  least  concussion. 
The  centre  of  gravity  being  displaced  further  forward  when 
the  horse  is  in  motion,  still  greater  weight  is  thrown  on 
the  forelegs,  the  hindlegs  serving  as  propellers.  The 
articulation  of  the  thigh  directly  with  the  pelvis  conveys  the 
propulsive  effort  throughout  the  entire  length  of  the  spinal 
column.  The  supportive  action  of  the  forelegs  meets  the 
propulsive  action  of  the  hindlegs  in  such  a  way  as  to  restore 
the  equilibrium  of  the  body. 

The  joints  of  the  leg  are  hinge  joints,  capable  of  motion 
in  two  directions  only,  flexion  and  extension,  while  the  joints 
of  the  hip  and  shoulder,  points  at  which  the  legs  articulate 
with  the  body,  are  ball-and-socket  joints,  which  permit  of  a 
rotary  motion.  The  legs,  generally  speaking,  are  therefore 
capable  of  alternate  flexion  and  extension,  which  takes  place 
in  the  order  named,  although  the  flexion  of  the  leg  as  a  whole 
may  involve  the  extension  of  some  one  joint,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  shoulder  at  the  commencement  of  flexion  of  the  leg. 

Relation  of  Bone  and  Muscular  Development. — In  accordance 
with  the  use  of  the  horse,  it  is  necessary  to  understand  the 
relation  of  the  bones  and  muscles,  especialh'  in  determining 
normal  value,  quality  of  structure,  and  the  amount  of  natural 
muscular  development.  In  passing  judgment  on  a  horse, 
the  general  shape  of  the  bony  framework  and  its  correlation 
with  the  muscles  should  be  kept  in  mind,  as  it  will  be  helpful 
in  determining  the  relative  merits  of  animals  in  low  or  medium 

^  Gay,  Principles  and  Practice  of  Judging  Live  Stock. 


FUNDAMENTAL   CONSIDERATIONS  93 

condition.  Although  the  character  of  the  muscles,  their 
length  and  thickness,  vary  considerably  in  different  animals, 
the  development  of  them  is  a  safe  guide  in  determining  the 
ultimate  value  of  an  animal,  either  in  draft  or  light  horse 
service.  Between  these  divisions  there  is  a  wide  variation  in 
the  size,  length,  shape  and  thickness  of  the  muscles,  yet  their 
relative  position  and  the  part  which  they  play  in  giving  an 
animal  its  characteristic  shape  and  locomotion  are  the  same. 
Draft  animals  have  short,  thick,  muscles  which  indicate 
strength,  while  light  animals  have  long  and  rather  thin 
muscles,  productive  of  speed.  Aside  from  this  difference  the 
position  of  the  muscles  on  the  framework  is  the  same,  it 
being  a  question  of  a  difference  in  form  or  development  and 
not  in  location. 

Beginning  with  the  head,  this  portion  of  the  body  is 
largely  formed  by  the  peculiar  construction  of  the  bony 
framework  in  this  region,  the  skin  being  drawn  rather  tightly 
over  it.  The  neck  of  the  animal  is  constructed  almost 
entirely  by  the  muscles  leading  from  the  head  to  the  shoulders. 
The  shoulders  are  partially  formed  by  the  bony  framework. 
Howe^'e^,  a  large  portion  of  the  animal  in  this  region  is 
defined  by  the  development  of  the  muscular  tissues.  The 
body  proper  is  formed  largely  by  the  position  which  the 
ribs  assume.  Although  the  contour  is  not  determined  by  the 
rib  development,  the  general  shape  of  the  body  is  largely 
thus  defined.  The  rear  quarters  are  shaped  largely  by  the 
muscle  formation,  especially  over  the  croup,  the  upper  thighs, 
and  in  the  quarters  proper. 

The  muscular  development  of  the  lower  thigh  or  gaskin  is 
of  such  a  nature  that  it  is  used  as  an  index  to  the  muscular 
development  of  the  animal  throughout.  In  an  animal  which 
has  been  highly  fattened  the  natural  muscular  formation  can 
be  determined  by  this  index,  as  this  region  does  not  accumu- 
late fatt}'  tissue  to  any  appreciable  extent.  It  is  therefore  a 
safe  guide  to  the  development  in  other  parts  because  of  the 
close  correlation  usually  existing  between  this  and  other 
regions.  The  legs,  from  the  knees  and  hocks  down,  are 
formed  almost  entirely  by  the  bones,  tendons  and  ligaments. 
For  this  reason   the   canon   bones  are  used  as  an  index  to 


94 


JUDGING  HORSES 


FUNDAMENTAL   CONSIDERATIONS  95 

the  size  and  quality  of  bone  which  the  animal  possesses. 
A  horse  of  good  quality  can  be  readily  determined,  for 
example,  by  passing  the  hand  along  the  canon  bone.  If  the 
skin  is  smooth,  soft  and  oily,  and  the  bone  is  hard,  smooth, 
and  dense  it  is  an  excellent  indication  of  superior  quality 
throughout.  Other  than  in  the  head,  body,  and  legs  of  the 
horse  the  skeleton  is  somewhat  deceiving  in  the  lines  which 
a  finished  animal  possesses  because  of  the  relatively  large 
amount  of  muscle  compared  with  the  bone  tissue. 

Relation  of  Form  to  Utility. — The  value  of  a  horse  is  funda- 
mentally based  on  the  structure  which  governs  or  defines 
the  type.  The  make  or  build  of  a  horse  is  closely  analogous 
or  suggestive  of  the  work  which  it  can  do.  The  draft  horse 
with  a  long,  broad,  deep  body,  short,  stout  legs,  all  involved 
in  securing  weight  and  massiveness,  is  suggestive  of  power 
or  work  at  a  comparatively  slow  pace.  The  close-knit,  sym- 
metrical, smooth-turned,  refined,  heavy  harness  horse  is 
suggestive  of  style  and  action  at  the  expense  of  both  the 
maximum  work  of  the  draft  horse  and  the  speed  of  the  light 
harness  horse.  The  latter,  although  of  two  distinct  types,  is 
generally  suggestive  of  more  speed  and  less  style  than  in  the 
heavy  harness  horse.  Although  the  light  harness  horse  is 
a  comparatively  smooth-turned,  symmetrical  animal,  the 
deeper,  narrower  body,  longer  legs,  and  less  pronounced  scale 
are  all  indicative  of  speed  qualifications.  The  saddle  horse, 
with  a  short  back,  light  forehand  development,  high  withers 


EXPLANATION  OF  FIG.   17. 

I.H.,  atlas;  7.H.,  seventh  cen-ical  vertebra;  I.R.,  first  thoracic  vertebra; 
17. R.,  seventeenth  thoracic  vertebra;  I.L.,  first  lumbar  vertebra;  6.L., 
sixth  lumbar  vertebra;  K,  sacrum;  I.S.,  first  coccygeal  vertebra;  16.  S., 
sixteenth  coccj-geal  vertebra;  6.R.,  sixth  rib;  6.K.,  costal  cartilage;  18.R., 
last  rib;  1,  scapula;  1',  cartilage  of  scapula';  2,  spine  of  scapula;  4,  humerus; 
4',  external  epicondyle  of  humerus;  5,  external  tuberosity  of  humerus; 
6,  deltoid  tuberosity;  7,  shaft  of  ulna;  8,  olecranon;  9,  radius;  10,  carpus; 
11,  accessory  carpal  bone;  12,  metacarpus;  13,  digit;  14,  sternum;  14", 
xiphoid  cartilage;  15,  ilium;  16,  16',  external  and  internal  angles  of  ilium; 
17,  ischium;  18,  femur  (shaft);  19,  trochanter  major;  27,  trochanter  minor; 
28,  trochanter  tertius;  20,  patella;  21,  tibia  (shaft);  21',  external  condyle  of 
tibia;  22,  tarsus;  23,  fibula;  24,  tuber  calcis;  25,  metatarsus;  26,  digit. 
(After  Ellenberger-Baum,  Anat.  f.  Klinstler.) 


96  JUDGING  HORSES 

and  sloping  shoulders,  is  suggestive  of  an  animal  with  weight- 
carrying  capacity.  Likewise  the  pony,  which  is  typified  in 
the  Shetland  and  Welsh  breeds,  is  indicative  of  less  draft 
and  slower  going,  comparatively  speaking,  than  in  the  other 
types  mentioned. 

The  draft  horse  with  weight  and  massiveness,  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  light  horse  with  a  lithe,  rangy  form,  is 
capable  of  developing  power  instead  of  show  or  speed  in 
their  various  phases.  A  detailed  study  of  the  horse  for 
these  reasons  is  not  only  desirable  from  a  general  viewpoint, 
but  necessary  to  understand  the  various  applications  in 
work  and  pleasure. 

Propelling  Power. — The  propelling  power  of  the  horse  is 
in  the  hindquarters,  the  forelegs  serving  as  a  support  or 
balance  to  the  body.  Evidence  of  the  location  of  the  pro- 
pelling power  may  be  seen  in  an  animal  doing  actual  work. 
Additional  natural  evidence  is  in  the  heavier  muscling  through 
the  coupling,  loin,  croup  and  quarters,  as  compared  with  other 
regions.  The  energy  is  developed  in  the  hindquarters,  while 
the  strain  of  the  propulsion  comes  in  a  large  measure  on  the 
coupling  and  loin  muscles.  A  shallow  flank  is  therefore  in- 
dicative of  a  general  body  weakness.  If  the  power  developed 
cannot  be  borne  by  the  correlated  parts,  additional  or  unusual 
development  in  any  special  region  is  not  of  any  distinct  value. 
That  a  chain  is  no  stronger  than  its  weakest  link  is  evidenced 
in  the  horse  when  placed  in  severe  work  or  endurance  trials. 
The  long,  shallow  body  and  loosely  coupled  animal  cannot 
endure  severe  strain,  while  the  short,  compact  and  deep- 
muscled  animal  with  a  full,  strong  coupling  can  usually 
continue  in  service  indefinitely.  The  degree  of  power  de- 
velopment is  dependent  upon  the  formation  of  the  bones 
and  muscles,  especially  in  the  hindquarters.  In  the  fore- 
hand the  shoulder  blade  does  not  form  a  direct  attachment 
with  the  mechanism  proper,  the  horse  having  no  collar  bone. 
The  shoulder  bone  is  sustained  by  the  muscles  which  give 
form  or  shape  to  the  animal  in  this  region.  The  difference 
in  the  mechanism  of  the  forehand  and  hindquarters  is  thus 
indicative  of  the  source  of  power  and  emphasizes  the  necessity 
of  full  development  in  the  latter  region. 


FUNDAMENTAL   COXSI DERATIONS  97 

Nervous  Development. — The  bones  and  muscles  of  an  animal 
represent  the  foundation  machinery  by  which  work  is  per- 
formed when  properly  connected  or  correlated  with  the 
nervous  organization.  From  the  brain,  which  is  the  centre 
of  the  nervous  system,  there  is  a  direct  connection  with  all 
parts  of  the  body  which  act  in  accordance  with  the  degree 
of  nerve  stimulation.  The  stimulation  which  comes  from 
the  nervous  system  without  proper  coordination  with  the 
bones  and  muscles,  or  vice  versa,  would  be  of  very  little 
value.  There  is  a  direct  relationship  between  the  nerves 
and  muscles  which  stimulate  work,  speed,  or  action  in  its 
various  phases  which  is  dependent  upon  the  type  of  animal 
under  consideration. 

Animals  with  a  sluggish  temperament  are  simply  lacking 
in  nerve  tone  and  consequently  do  not  perform  their  work 
with  the  persistence  or  satisfaction  of  animals  more  highly 
developed  in  this  respect.  A  horse  with  a  nervous  tempera- 
ment usually  has  greater  intelligence,  greater  nerve  force, 
and,  therefore,  more  persistence  or  endurance  in  performing 
work.  An  irritable,  erratic  animal  is  the  result  of  imperfect 
nerve  control.  This  condition  should  be  differentiated 
sharply  from  the  nervous-tempered  animal  which  signifies 
a  more  highly  developed  nervous  organization,  susceptible  of 
perfect  control.  These  three  conditions  of  nervous  develop- 
ment or  nerve  force  are  exceedingly  important  in  judging 
horses  and  mules  and  should  be  given  special  consideration. 

Action. — Action  in  the  horse,  termed  by  Gay,  "way  of 
going,"  is  one  of  the  chief  fundamentals  of  the  organized 
structure.  The  degree  of  development  or  perfection  is 
directly  dependent  on  the  nature  of  the  machine.  This  is  in- 
fluenced first,  by  the  breeding,  second,  by  the  t^-pe,  and  third, 
by  the  individual.  It  may  be  otherwise  affected  by  training 
or  education  and  mechanical  appliances.  The  latter  two, 
however,  are  of  chief  interest  to  light  horse  breeders  where 
show,  speed  or  pleasure  are  involved.  From  a  broad  utility 
standpoint  the  breeding,  t}T)e,  and  individuality  of  the  animal 
are  of  fundamental  importance.  Education  and  mechanical 
appliances  which  influence  action  are  of  deep  significance 
in  certain  types  and  classes  of  horses.     They  involve  the 


98 


JUDGING  HORSES 


making  or  unmaking  of  some  animals  whose  work  is  to  show, 
to  develop  speed,  or  to  be  driven  for  pleasure. 

Fundamentally,  there  are  several  distinct  gaits  of  pro- 
nounced importance  which  are  the  walk,  trot,  pace,  canter, 
rack,  gallop,  running  walk,  fox  trot  and  slow  pace.  These  gaits 
are  described  as  follows  and  will  be  applied  to  the  various 
breeds,  types  and  classes  in  the  consideration  of  these  subjects. 

Gaits. — A  gait  is  significant  of  one  of  the  characteristic 
methods  used  in  producing  locomotion.  It  is  characterized 
by  certain  definite  phases  or  features  which  thus  gives  the 
horse  a  distinctiveness  in  adapting  itself  to  various  uses, 
whether  for  draft,  speed,  road,  show,  or  saddle  purposes. 

Walk. — The  walk  is  one  of  the  fundamental  gaits  of 
horses.  It  is  a  comparatively  slow  four-beat  gait  character- 
istic of  the  draft  horse  especially  and  also  of  light  horses, 
although  of  less  significance  compared  with  the  draft  animal. 
It  is  a  distinct  form  of  locomotion  and  when  executed  properly 
is  a  very  useful  gait. 

Trot. — The  trot  is  a  two-beat  gait,  the  diagonal  forelegs  and 
hindlegs  moving  together.     There  are  three  distinct  varieties 


Fig.  18 


Fig.  19 


Fig.  18.— Vie\\ang  action  at  the  walk  coming  toward  the  observer. 
Observe  movement  of  forelegs  and  shoulders  especially.  The  legs  should 
be  placed  directly  under  the  body  and  there  should  be  no  winging,  rolling, 
or  paddling  motion.    (Courtesy  of  Indiana  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.) 

Fig.  19. — Viewing  action  at  the  walk  going  from  the  observer.  Observe 
the  snap,  flexion  of  the  joints,  directness  and  hock  movements.  (Courtesy 
of  Indiana  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.) 


FUNDAMENTAL   CONSIDERATIONS 


99 


Fig.  20 


Fig.  21 


Observe  general  style 
(Courtesy  of  Indiana 


Fig.  20. — Viewing  action  at  the  trot  coming  toward  the  observer 
of  the  animal,  carriage,  shoulder  movements,  directness  and  spring. 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station.) 

Fig.  21. — Viewing  action  at  the  trot  going  from  the  observer.  Observe  directness,  elasticity, 
snap,  and  carriage  of  hocks.     (Courtesy  of  Indiana  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.) 


Fig.  22 


Fig.  23 


Fig.  22. — Viewing  action  at  the  walk,  side  view.  Observe  length  of  stride,  height,  elasticity, 
flexion  of  joints  and  balance.     (Courtesy  of  Indiana  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.) 

Fig.  23. — Viewing  action  at  the  trot,  side  ^dew.  Observe  length  of  stride,  height,  regularity, 
balance  and  hock  action.     (Courtesy  of  Indiana  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.) 


100  JUDGING  HORSES 

of  the  trot,  including  that  of  the  trotting  horse,  the  heavy 
harness  horse,  and  the  saddle  horse. 

Pace. — The  pace,  like  the  trot,  is  a  rapid  two-beat  gait 
distinguished  from  the  latter  in  that  the  lateral  foreleg  and 
hindleg  move  together.  It  is  characterized  by  more  or  less 
side  motion  and  is  adapted  only  for  speed  purposes  or  on 
very  smooth  roads  which  otherwise  would  seriously  impede 
action  or  locomotion. 

Canter. — The  canter  is  a  slow  gallop  which  is  accomplished 
under  more  or  less  restraint.  It  is  a  gait  characteristic  of 
the  saddle  horse.  Such  animals  are  frequently  trained  to 
lead  on  either  foot  to  avoid  the  excessive  wear  on  the  leading 
forefoot  and  the  diagonal  hindfoot. 

Rack. — The  rack  is  a  four-beat  gait  which  is  characteristic 
of  the  five-gaited  saddle  horse.  It  was  formerly  termed 
"single  foot"  because  of  its  peculiar  cadence.  The  latter 
term  has  been  discarded,  however,  the  term  "rack"  being 
used  by  the  American  Saddle  Horse  Association. 

Gallop. — The  gallop  is  a  three-beat  gait,  two  diagonal  legs 
moving  together,  the  one  beat  of  the  two  falling  between  the 
successive  beats  of  the  other  two  legs. 

Running  Walk. — The  running  walk  is  a  four-beat  gait 
intermediate  between  the  walk  and  the  rack.  It  is  an  easy 
gait  on  both  the  horse  and  the  rider. 

Fox  Trot. — The  fox  trot  is  a  broken  trot  characterized 
by  more  or  less  of  a  pace  as  indicated  by  the  movements 
of  the  animal.  This  gait,  like  the  running  walk,  is  character- 
istic of  the  five-gaited  saddle  horse. 

Detailed  Structural  Form. — The  detailed  structure  of  the 
horse  will  be  considered  under  one  general  outline  as  follows : 

Head  and  Neck. — The  head  should  be  neat  and  clean, 
clear  in  outline,  and  well  defined.  It  should  have  length, 
depth  and  breadth  proportionate  to  the  size  of  the  animal. 
The  lower  jaw  should  be  broad  and  open  in  the  angle  to 
accommodate  the  larynx  when  the  neck  is  flexed  and 
extended.  The  contour  of  the  head  should  be  clearly  defined, 
thus  indicating  superior  quality. 

Forehead. — The  forehead  should  be  broad,  flat,  and 
straight.  Good  width  between  the  eyes  is  especially  sig- 
nificant of  intelligence, 


FUNDAMENTAL   CONSIDERATIONS  101 

Ears.— The  ears  should  be  medium  in  size,  erect,  pointed, 
and  show  superior  quality  by  having  a  fine,  clean  coat  of 
hair. 

Eyes. — The  eyes  should  be  large,  bright,  clear,  and  promi- 
nent. There  should  be  no  indication  of  present  or  recurring 
disease. 

Muzzle. — The  muzzle  should  be  large,  broad,  deep,  and 
indicate  quality.  A  large,  coarse  muzzle  is  not  associated 
with  superior  quality  throughout  the  animal.  The  lips 
should  be  regular,  and  the  teeth  sound,  with  no  indication 
of  alterations  having  been  made. 

Nostrils. — ^The  nostrils  should  be  large  and  open,  which 
is  indicative  of  a  plentiful  supply  of  air  in  the  lungs. 

Neck. — The  neck  should  be  proportionate  in  length, 
depth,  and  thickness  to  the  type  of  the  animal.  The  crest 
should  be  well  developed,  the  throat -latch  fine,  with  the 
neck  smoothly  joining  the  shoulders. 

Forehand. — Withers. — The  withers  should  extend  high, 
well  back,  and  should  be  free  from  scars  or  other  alterations. 
Low  withers  are  objectionable. 

Shoulders. — The  shoulders  should  be  long,  smooth,  and 
sloping.  Straight  shoulders  are  usually  associated  with  short, 
upright  pasterns.  Both  of  these  conditions  are  antagonistic 
to  free  action  and  freedom  from  diseases  of  the  feet. 

Arms. — The  arms  should  be  well  muscled  and  carry  well 
forward.  Such  a  formation  is  usually  associated  with  sloping 
or  oblique  shoulders. 

Forearms. — The  forearms  should  be  broad,  deep,  straight, 
and  muscular.  The  length  should  be  proportionate  to  the 
type  of  the  animal. 

Knees.- — -The  knees  should  be  long,  broad,  smooth  and 
deep,  thus  indicating  a  well-supported  animal,  and  ample 
space  for  muscle  attachments. 

Canons. — The  canons  should  be  short,  broad,  and  flat. 
The  tendons  should  set  well  back,  which  gives  squareness  of 
form  to  the  leg  and  thus  added  strength.  Cut-under  canons 
are  very  objectionable,  showing  permanent  faultiness  in  an 
animal. 

Fetlocks. — ^The  fetlocks  should  be  wide,  smooth,  regular, 
and  strongly  supported. 


102 


JUDGING  HORSES 


Skin 

Tendon  of  common  extensor 

Bursa 


11 


Capsule  of  fetlock  joint  /w   i  i 

Cavity  of  fetlock  joint /  /  /' 


Cavity  of  pastern  joint 


Cavity  of  cojfm  joint  ^  "0  /^9 

Corium 
of  periople 
Periople 
Coronary       mi 
corium  -mrr  i    . 

Lamince  -^ — ^/  -  i        ^ 


Middle  sesamoidean  lig. 
Digital  synovial  sheath 
Cavity  of  pastern  joint 
Superficial  sesamoidean  lig. 
Deep  flexor  tendon 
Distal  end  of  digital  sheath 
12 
11 
Digital  cushion 


Sole       Corium  of  sole 

Fig.  24. — An  important  consideration  in  judging  horses.  Sagittal  section 
of  digit  and  distal  part  of  metacarpus  of  horse:  A,  metacarpal  bone;  B, 
first  phalanx;  C,  second  phalanx;  D,  third  phalanx;  E,  distal  sesamoid  bone; 
1,  volar  pouch  of  capsule  of  fetlock  joint;  2,  intersesamoidean  ligament;  3,  4, 
proximal  end  of  digital  synovial  sheath;  5,  ring  formed  by  superficial  flexor 
tendon;  6,  fibrous  tissue  underlying  ergot;  7,  ergot;  8,  9,  9',  branches  of 
digital  vessels;  10,  distal  ligament  of  distal  sesamoid  bone;  11,  suspensory 
ligament  of  distal  sesamoid  bone;  12,  12',  proximal  and  distal  ends  of  bursa 
podotrochlearis.  By  an  oversight  the  superficial  flexor  tendon  (behind  4) 
is  not  marked.  (Courtesy  of  L.  W.  Sisson,  from  Anatomy  of  Domestic 
Animals.) 


FUNDAMENTAL   CONSIDERATIONS  103 

Pasterns. — The  pasterns  should  be  long,  strong,  and 
slopmg.  Short,  straight  pasterns  indicate  imperfect  action 
and  lack  of  wearing  qualities. 

Legs. — The  legs  should,  as  a  whole,  be  straight,  strong,  and 
well  placed  under  the  body.  A  perpendicular  line  dropped 
from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  should  divide  the  leg  and  foot 
into  two  lateral  halves.  A  line  dropped  from  the  point  of 
the  scapula  should  divide  the  elbow-joint  and  pass  through 
the  centre  of  the  foot. 

Feet. — The  feet  should  be  large,  round,  open  at  the  heel, 
and  the  sole  concave.  The  wails  should  be  straight  and  the 
slope  should  correspond  to  the  slope  of  the  pasterns.  The 
bars  should  be  strong,  the  frog  large  and  elastic,  the  heels 
wide,  the  horn  dense,  dark  colored,  and  smooth  in  texture. 

Body. —  Heart  girth.- — ^The  heart  girth  is  synonymous 
with  the  chest.  It  should  be  deep,  broad  and  full,  thus 
giving  ample  space  for  the  heart  and  lungs. 

Ribs. — ^The  ribs  should  be  long,  well  arched,  and  placed 
close  together.  Good  length  is  indicative  of  full  depth  in 
the  body,  and  close  spacing  to  compactness  or  close  knit  form. 

Back. — The  back  should  be  short,  straight,  broad,  and 
strong. 

Loins. — The  loins  should  be  smooth,  broad,  strong,  deep, 
and  full,  which  is  indicative  of  a  close,  full-made  coupling, 
one  of  the  chief  characteristics  of  a  well-made  animal. 

Underline. — The  underline  should  be  long  and  well  let 
down  in  the  flanks,  which  indicates  good  depth  of  body. 

Hindquarters. —  Hips. — The  hips  should  be  wide,  level, 
and  smoothly  covered.  Prominent  hips  are  usually  indica- 
tive of  open  conformation. 

Croup. — ^The  croup  should  be  long,  smooth,  level,  broad, 
and  muscular.  A  dropping  croup  is  not  only  unsightly 
but  objectionable  from  the  standpoint  of  power  or  action. 

Thighs. — The  thighs  should  be  long,  muscular,  and  deep. 
The  width  of  the  animal  from  the  hips  should  be  carried 
perpendicularly  to  the  ground,  a  line  thus  drawn  coinciding 
with  the  thighs. 

Gaskins  or  Loiver  Thighs. — The  gaskins  or  lower  thighs 
should  be  long,  broad,  and  muscular.    The  muscular  develop- 


104  JUDGING  HORSES 

ment  in  this  region  is  indicative  of  the  natural  muscular 
development  of  an  animal,  thus  making  it  possible  to  judge 
the  muscular  development  as  well  in  high  as  in  low  condition. 


Fig.  25. — Right  forehoof  of  horse,  ground  surface:  1,  basal  or  ground 
border  of  wall;  2,  laminse  of  wall;  3,  angle  of  wall;  4,  bar;  5,  sole;  5',  angle 
of  sole;  6,  white  line  (junction  of  wall  and  sole);  7,  apex  of  frog;  8,  central 
sulcus  of  frog;  9,  9,  collateral  sulci  between  frog  and  bars;  10,  10,  bulbs  of 
hoof.     (Courtesy  of  L.  W.  Sisson,  from  Anatomy  of  Domestic  Animals.) 

Hocks. — The  hocks  should  be  wide,  deep,  smooth,  and 
strongly  supported.  The  point  of  the  hocks  should  be 
prominent.  The  size  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  weight 
of  the  horse.     The  hocks  are  of  fundamental  significance  in 


FUNDAMENTAL   CONSIDERATIONS  105 

the  horse  because  of  their  direct  correlation  with  efficient 
power  and  speed  development. 

Canons. — The  canons  should  be  short,  strong,  and  broad, 
and  the  tendons  should  be  well  set  back. 

Fetlocks. — The  fetlocks  should  be  strong  and  well  sup- 
ported. ^Yeak  fetlock-joints  in  the  hindfeet  as  well  as  in 
the  forefeet  are  very  objectionable. 

Pasterns. — The  pasterns  should  be  long,  sloping,  and 
strongly  supported. 

Legs.— The  hindlegs  of  a  horse  are  of  unusual  significance 
and  should,  therefore,  be  straight,  strong,  and  well  supported 
throughout.  A  perpendicular  line  dropped  from  the  point 
of  the  buttock  should  divide  the  leg  and  the  foot  into  two 
equal  parts.  A  perpendicular  line  dropped  from  the  hip- 
joint  to  the  ground  should  divide  the  foot,  meeting  the 
ground  half-way  between  the  heel  and  the  toe. 

Tail. — The  tail  should  be  set  high,  well  carried,  and 
should  show  quality  by  the  character  of  the  hair  thereon. 

Determination  of  Age. — Since  the  use  of  the  horse  is  depend- 
ent on  the  amount  and  continuity  of  work  performed  and 
not  on  the  quality  of  an  edible  product,  as  in  meat-producing 
animals,  which  are  influenced  by  age  only  under  certain 
specified  conditions,  it  is  important  to  know  the  fundamentals 
of  age  determination.  While  in  a  general  way  the  age  of  an 
animal  can  be  approximately  determined  by  their  general 
appearance  or  condition,  the  teeth  are  the  most  reliable 
indications  for  practical  usage.  In  judging  age  by  the  teeth 
it  is  very  important  to  know  the  condition  of  the  normal 
mouth,  as  the  teeth  are  at  times  seriously  affected  by  the 
soil  on  which  animals  graze  or  by  the  character  and  quantity 
of  feed  received.  Liberal  feeding  on  hard  or  flinty  feeds 
may  apparently  hasten  maturity,  while  light  feeding  on  soft 
feeds  or  pasturing  may  retard  it. 

The  teeth  are  also  "bishoped"  sometimes  by  unscrupulous 
dealers  to  renew  the  appearance  of  the  cups  which  gradually 
disappear  with  age.  This  operation  is  performed  by  the  use 
of  a  hot  iron  which  burns  a  cup  in  the  center  of  the  teeth, 
thus  making  it  appear  that  the  natural  cups  are  still  present. 
Up  to  the  age  of  five  3'ears  the  order  of  appearance  of  the  six 


106 


JUDGING  HORSES 


Injundihulum 

Central  enamel 
Dentijie 
Peripheral 
enamel 

Cement 


permanent  incisors  in  each  jaw  is  indicative  of  the  age. 
After  this  period  the  cups  are  reUed  upon  to  determine  the 
age  up  to  eleven  years.  After  this  second  period  of  develop- 
ment the  angle  or  slope  of  the  teeth  from  the  jaws  and  the 
general  appearance  of  the  animal  are  the  only  guides.     While 

some  variations  may  occur  in 
the  displacement  of  the  tem- 
porary teeth  by  the  perma- 
nent ones  and  in  the  rapidity 
of  the  disappearance  of  the 
cups,  the  appearance  of  the 
teeth  will  show,  within  rea- 
sonable limits,  the  age  of 
horses  with  normal  mouths. 
Temporary  or  Milk  Teeth. 
—The  age  of  young  animals 
may  be  determined  by  the 
characteristic  appearance  of 
the  milk  or  temporary  teeth, 
which  are  twelve  in  number, 
each  jaw  having    six  incisors. 

Peripheral  enamel     Cement 
Dentine  - 
Central  enamel  - 
Cement- 


FiG.  26. — Longitudinal  section  of 
lower  incisor  tooth  of  horse:  C,  pulp 
cavity.  Cement  is  shown  in  the 
infundibulum,  but  is  not  marked.) 
Courtesy  of  L.  W.  Sisson,  from  Ana- 
tomy of  Domestic  Animals.) 


Fig.  27. — Cross-section  of  lower 
incisor  tooth  of  horse:  7,  infundi- 
bulum. (Courtesy  of  L.  W. 
Sisson,  from  Anatomy  of  Domestic 
Animals.) 


The  temporary  teeth  are  slender,  narrow,  constricted  at  the 
neck,  and  much  whiter  than  the  permanent  teeth.  The 
permanent  incisors  are  broader,  thicker,  and  of  a  darker 
color.  The  temporary  incisors,  which  are  all  visible  at  one 
year,  remain  intact  until  the  two  central  temporary  incisors 
are  replaced  by  the  first  pair  of  permanent  central  incisors. 


FUNDAMENTAL   CONSIDERATIONS 


107 


This  occurs  when  the  animal  is  two  and  one-half  to  three 
years  of  age,  the  remainder  of.  the  temporary  teeth  being 
replaced  as  described  subsequently. 

Order  of  Appearance  of  Incisors.- — The  permanent  incisors 
of  both  the  upper  and  lower  jaws  appear  at  the  same  time, 
and  in  determining  the  age  during  this  stage  of  dentition 
reference  should  be  made  to  the  teeth  in  both  jaws.  The 
horse  has  six  permanent  incisors  in  each  jaw  in  a  full  mouth 
and  these  appear  as  follows : 


Fig.  28.  —  Lower  incisor  and 
canine  teeth  of  horse,  five  years 
old:  /', 72  /3  incigQi-g.  (7^  canine. 
(Courtesy  of  L.  W.  Sisson,  from 
Anatomy  of  Domestic  Animals.) 


Fig.  29.  —  Upper  incisor  and 
canine  teeth  of  horse  five  years  old : 
/\  I"^,  P,  incisors;  C,  canine. 
(Courtesy  of  L.  W.  Sisson,  from 
Anatomy  of  Domestic  Animals.) 


The  center  pair  of  incisors  appear  first,  displacing  the 
temporary  pair  when  the  animal  is  two  and  one-half  to  three 
years  old.  The  second  or  intermediate  pair  displace  the  tem- 
porary teeth  when  the  animal  is  three  and  one-half  to  four 
years  old,  and  the  third  or  corner  pair  displaces  the  corner 
temporary  incisors  at  four  and  one-half  to  five  3'ears  old. 
When  these  permanent  incisors  are  all  completely  up  and  in 
wear  the  horse  has  a  full  mouth.  After  the  animal  reaches 
this  five-year  stage,  the  age  is  determined  by  the  order  of 
disappearance  of  the  cups  in  the  incisors. 


108  JUDGING  HORSES 

Disappearance  of  the  Cups. — The  cups,  which  appear  on 
the  tables  of  the  teeth,  are  quite  rehable  indications  of  age 
from  the  five  to  the  eleven-year  stage.  At  five  years  the 
cups  in  the  central  pair  of  incisors  of  the  lower  jaw  show 
some  wear,  but  it  is  not  until  the  animal  reaches  the  six-year 
stage  that  they  disappear.  The  canines  in  males  may  appear 
at  this  age.  At  seven  years  of  age  the  intermediate  incisors 
lose  almost  all  trace  of  their  cups  through  wear,  and  at  eight 
the  corner  incisors  are  worn  and  free  from  the  cups  described 
at  the  earUer  stage. 

At  nine  years  of  age  the  cups  are  either  worn  or  disappear 
from  the  central  pair  of  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw.  At  ten 
the  cups  of  the  two  intermediate  incisors  have  worn  until 
they  have  disappeared,  and  at  eleven  the  cups  of  the  corner 
incisors  have  disappeared.  After  a  horse  passes  this  stage 
the  age  may  be  determined  by  the  general  appearance  and 
condition  of  the  teeth.  As  the  age  advances  the  tables  or 
biting  surface  of  the  incisors  become  more  triangular  and 
the  teeth  spring  from  the  jaw  at  a  greater  angle. 

Method  of  Examination. — The  examination  of  a  horse 
involves  two  distinct  viewpoints,  the  one  from  that  of  the 
purchaser  and  the  other  that  of  the  judge  in  the  show  ring. 
The  methods  of  examination  are  somewhat  different,  owing 
to  the  two  distinct  viewpoints  from  which  animals  are 
examined. 

Involving  the  Purchaser. — The  purchaser  of  a  horse  is 
more  deeply  interested  in  the  peculiar  traits  or  any  unsound 
conditions  which  may  prevail  than  is  the  show  ring  judge 
who  merely  passes  on  the  vahie  of  an  animal  as  indicated 
by  a  mere  external  examination.  The  purchaser  should 
examine  the  horse  in  the  stall  to  note  how  he  stands  and  any 
other  peculiarities  which  may  be  present.  An  examination 
should  be  made  for  cribbing,  weaving,  or  other  objectionable 
stable  habits.  The  horse  should  then  be  backed  out  of  the 
stall,  noting  closely  any  peculiarities  in  the  use  of  the  legs, 
particularly  the  hindlegs,  or  any  serious  disorders  of  the 
nervous  system.  Spavin  may  often  be  first  detected  by 
this  examination. 

After  the  horse  is  taken  out  the  eyes  should  be  examined 


FUNDAMENTAL   CONSIDERATIONS  109 

carefully,  after  which  he  should  be  observed  at  the  walk, 
and  at  the  trot,  in  both  cases,  as  he  comes  toward,  passes  by, 
and  goes  from  the  observer.  Defects  in  action,  lameness,  or 
other  peculiarities  may  thus  be  detected.  Any  indications  of 
stable  vices,  lameness,  unsoundness  or  defects  can  usually  be 
detected  in  this  examination. 

After  completing  the  examination  in  the  stall  and  while 
in  action,  the  horse  should  be  hitched  to  an  appropriate 
vehicle  and  be  given  rather  severe  exercise  to  bring  out  any 
weakness  or  unsoundness  in  the  wind.  In  making  this 
examination,  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  an  apparent 
wind  trouble  is  not  due  to  an  improperly  adjusted  harness. 
After  the  exercise  has  been  completed  the  ear  should  be 
held  close  to  the  nostrils  to  determine  whether  wind  troubles 
are  present.  A  thorough  examination  should  thus  be  made 
of  the  entire  animal  to  determine  any  unusual  condition 
which  may  exist.  If  in  the  case  of  a  breeding  animal  an 
examination  of  the  records  from  the  standpoint  of  breeding 
qualities  is  important. 

hivolving  the  Judge. — The  judge  of  horses  in  the  modern 
show  ring  does  not  usually  have  the  responsibility  of  detecting 
disease  or  unsoundness.  This  work  is  done  by  the  official 
veterinarian  who  makes  a  report  on  such  animals  and  their 
condition  from  the  standpoint  of  soundness  thus  determined. 
The  judge  may  not  apparent!}"  follow  a  definite  procedure 
in  making  the  examination.  However,  such  a  course  is 
desirable.  The  examination  should  be  started  by  viewing 
the  animal  from  in  front,  thus  noting  the  expression,  the 
features  of  the  head,  width  and  depth  of  chest,  and  the 
directness  and  conformation  of  the  feet  and  legs.  He 
should  then  pass  to  the  side,  noting  the  length,  depth, 
weight,  and  scale.  The  slope  of  the  shoulder,  length  of  the 
back  and  carriage  of  the  head  and  neck,  height  of  the  withers, 
and  the  conformation  of  the  feet  and  legs,  back,  loin,  croup, 
thighs,  and  flanks  should  be  examined. 

From  the  rear  view  the  width  and  depth  of  the  hind- 
quarters, the  direction  and  conformation  of  the  legs  and 
feet  should  be  determined.  The  width  and  slope  of  the 
croup  should  also  be  noted,  the  tail  setting  and  the  fulness 


110  JUDGING  HORSES 

of  the  quarters.  After  this  examination  is  completed  the 
opposite  side  should  be  examined  to  determine  any  unusual 
condition  which  might  be  present. 

The  animal  should  then  be  moved,  noting  the  various 
phases  of  action  as  the  animal  comes  toward,  passes  by,  and 
goes  from  the  observer.  The  length,  height,  directness, 
regularity,  and  balance  of  the  stride  should  be  observed. 
This  completes  the  examination,  and  after  having  reached 
this  point  a  balance  of  the  animal  should  be  effected.  Many 
times  an  animal  which  appears  to  be  a  perfect  individual 
from  the  standpoint  of  conformation  is  very  defective  in 
action,  thus  giving  it  a  very  much  lower  rating  than  other- 
wise. The  importance  of  action  can  be  best  determined 
by  making  a  close  examination  for  the  various  conditions 
of  unsoundness,  defects,  and  peculiarities  in  the  action.  The 
value  of  a  horse  cannot  be  determined  until  the  actual 
combined  examination  is  made  when  at  rest  and  in  motion. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  HORSES. 

Horses  may  be  divided  into  two  fundamental  divisions  for 
the  purpose  of  studying  their  distinctive  conformation  and 
uses.  The  first  includes  the  draft  or  power  division,  and  the 
second,  the  light  horse  division  which  is  subdivided  into 
several  other  type  and  breed  groupings,  depending  on  breed 
qualifications  and  the  specific  use  of  the  animals.  These 
two  main  divisions  will  be  adhered  to  in  discussing  the 
subject,  being  used  only  for  arbitrary  purposes. 

Horses  are  more  specificially  divided  into  groups  or  types, 
breeds,  classes,  and  subclasses.  The  five  groups  or  types 
are  represented  in  the  draft,  heavy  harness,  light  harness, 
saddle,  and  pony  groups.  These  five  groups  or  types  may  be 
subdivided  into  the  various  pure  breeds  which  conform  to  the 
broad  use  or  purpose,  and  second,  into  specific  market  and 
show  classes.  In  the  first  division  of  the  groups  or  types 
into  breeds,  the  distinction  is  based  solely  on  pure  breeding 
or  blood  lines,  or  on  certain  standard  qualifications  and 
requirements.  The  second  division  of  the  types  into  classes, 
and  the  third  into  subclasses  is  based  on  specialized  uses 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  HORSES 


111 


or  purposes,  regardless  of  blood  lines  or  purity  of  breeding. 
While  these  classes  and  subclasses  may  contain  pure  speci- 
mens of  the  various  breeds  represented  in  the  groups  or 
types,  this  is  not  a  requirement. 


Classification  of  Horses. 


Breed. 

Type. 

Class.                  Subclass. 

Percheron 

Drafter         ( ^ght 
\  Heavy 

Draft 

Belgian 

Division    < 

Clydesdale 
Shire 

■  Draft 

^"Sg"          f  Eastern  and 

.  Suffolk 

1  Chunk         \  j,2i;-' 

[  Southern 

Expresser 

Cleveland   bay  1 

Coach  horse 

German   coach  1  Heavy 

Park  horse 

French  coach     \     harness 

Cob    (intermediate    with 

Hackney             J 

Cab                  [pony  type) 
>  Runabout 

American            1  Light              1 

Speed  or       f  Trotter 
race  horse  \  Pacer 

Standardbred  \     harness        i 

J                          1 

Roadster 

^  Combination 

(     horse 

Light 

J  Walk-trot- 

Division 

canter 

American 

Gaited 

Saddle  horse 

f  Light 

Saddle 

Hunter         -j  Medium 
[  Heavy 

* 

Race  horse 

Thoroughbred 

runner 

Running  horse 

Cavalry 

Shetland             1                         f 

Polo  pony 

Welsh                    Pony              ^ 

Shetland  (under  46  inches) 

Hackneyi           J 

I 

11-2  to  14-2 

Conformity  to  all  of  the  attributes,  namely,  weight 
quality,  conformation,  symmetry,  temperament,  disposition, 
style,  action  and  finish,  which  constitutes  utility  or  purpose 
in  the  specific  division  under  observation,  is  the  basis  of 


1  Hackney  under  14-2  hands,  with  breed  characteristics  accentuated- 


112  JUDGING  HORSES 

distinction.  Because  of  the  varied  and  specialized  purposes 
for  which  horses  are  used,  there  is  occasionally  an  overlapping 
or  combination  of  classes.  This  fact  is  brought  out  in  case 
of  the  expresser,  runabout,  and  combination  horse.  It 
is  recognized  that  classifications  vary  somewhat,  depending 
on  the  authority  and  the  basis  on  which  they  are  made. 
Gay  divides  horses  into  four  types,  namely,  power,  speed, 
show,  and  saddle.  This  division  is  made  on  the  basis  of 
mechanics,  each  type  being  subdivided  into  classes  in 
accordance  with  market  and  show  ring  demands. 


.     CHAPTER  VII. 
JUDGING  DRAFT  HORSES. 

DRAFT  GROUP  OR  TYPE. 

The  term  draft  is  significant  of  weight,  massiveness, 
and,  therefore,  the  development  of  power.  An  animal 
possessing  these  qualifications  has  certain  definite  attributes 
which  qualify  it  for  work  of  this  character.  The  draft  type 
is  divided  into  three  generally  significant  classes,  namely: 
drafter,  logger,  and  chunk. 

Draft  Conformation. — The  form  of  the  draft  horse  should 
be  massive  and  compact.  Animals  of  this  type  should 
be  low  set,  wide  and  deep  in  the  body,  with  strong  bone 
and  deep  muscling,  both  of  which  are  characteristic  of  the 
horse  with  power  attainments.  These  attributes  should  be 
correlated  so  that  the  animal  possesses  perfect  symmetry 
throughout.  A  draft  horse  properly  made  should  be  low 
set,  square  and  compact  and  at  the  same  time  symmetrical 
from  every  angle.  Weight  properly  distributed  is  the  first 
essential  of  a  draft  animal.  Based  on  weight  alone,  a  horse 
might  possess  sufficient  weight,  yet  because  of  long  legs  and 
a  rangy  body  such  an  animal  would  not  be  acceptable  on 
the  market  or  in  draft  service. 

From  a  structural  viewpoint  the  head  should  be  long, 
broad  and  deep,  yet  symmetrical  with  the  other  parts  of 
the  body.  The  neck  should  be  of  sufficient  length  and  depth 
to  harmonize  perfectly  with  the  weight  of  the  animal.  The 
head  and  neck  should  blend  smoothly,  and  the  neck  should 
deepen  gradually  toward  the  shoulders,  which  should  be  long 
and  sloping,  and  extend  well  back  in  order  to  give  strength 
in  the  back,  proper  style,  and  symmetry.  A  moderately 
sloping  shoulder  on  a  draft  horse  is  usually  associated  with  a 
8  (113) 


114 


JUDGING  DRAFT  HORSES 


short  back,  which  is  characteristic  of  a  typical  draft  animal. 
The  back  should  be  short,  broad,  and  deeply  muscled.  The 
loin  should  be  broad,  level,  heavily  muscled,  and  should  be 
indicative  of  a  close,  short  coupling.  The  ribs  should  be  well 
arched,  closely  placed,  and  the  chest  should  be  deep  and 
broad  on  the  floor.  The  flank  should  be  full  and  low. 
The  hindquarters  should  be  broad,  deep,  the  croup  level, 
well  muscled,  and  the  thighs  deep  and  compact.     The  bone 


Fig.  30. — Characteristics  of  a  good  draft  gelding,  illustrating  the  draft  type. 


should  be  large,  square,  fine  and  dense,  and  the  forearm 
and  gaskin  heavily  muscled.  As  a  whole,  the  draft  animal 
should  be  broad,  deep,  compact,  and  massive  in  appearance 
throughout. 

Quality.— Quality  in  the  draft  animal  signifies  the  same 
condition  as  applied  to  the  light  horse  or  other  classes  of 
live  stock.  However,  in  the  light  horse  there  is  usually 
a  more  significant  indication  of  quality  in  the  hair,  skin,  and 
bone.  While  quality  is  just  as  essential  in  the  draft  horse 
it  is  usually  not  present  to  the  same  degree.     The  principal 


DRAFT  GROUP  OR  TYPE  115 

indications  of  quality  are  in  the  head,  hair,  hide,  and  bone. 
The  head  should  be  broad,  deep,  and  clearly  outlined  by 
distinct  facial  features.  Each  part  of  the  head  should  be 
clearly  outlined,  there  being  no  evidence  of  plainness  or 
lack  of  definition  or  refinement.  The  head  is  one  of  the 
best  indications  of  quality.  It  usually  portrays  intelligence 
also,  and  indirectly  constitution  and  form  requirements. 
A  large,  coarse  ear,  a  straight  undefined  face  and  head,  and  a 
large,  plain  muzzle  portray  a  general  lack  of  quality,  char- 
acter, and  intelligence.  A  fine  glossy,  mossy  coat  of  hair, 
soft  to  the  touch  is  indicative  of  what  may  be  found  beneath. 
The  skin  on  an  animal  with  a  coat  of  hair  so  characterized 
is  usually  soft,  pliable,  and  elastic.  The  bone  is  an  unusual 
indication  of  quality.  If  it  is  fine,  hard  and  dense  with  fine 
texture,  it  is  ordinarily  accompanied  by  a  corresponding 
degree  of  quality  throughout  the  body.  It  may  be  possible 
to  get  too  much  quality,  although  as  much  should  be  apparent 
as  consistent  with  the  required  weight  and  substance  of  the 
draft  animal. 

Constitution  and  Endurance. — The  value  of  the  draft  horse 
is  significantly  magnified  by  the  amount  of  constitution  and 
endurance  possessed.  The  indications  of  constitution  are 
largely  in  the  development  of  the  muzzle,  nostris,  head,  and 
chest.  The  head  should  be  long,  broad,  and  clearly  defined. 
The  muzzle  should  be  broad,  deep,  and  the  nostrils  large  and 
open  to  give  free  access  of  air  into  the  lungs.  The  jaw 
bones  should  be  long  and  broad  at  the  angle  or  opening. 
The  chest  should  be  broad  and  deep  to  accommodate  the 
vital  organs.  A  broad  spring  of  rib  and  a  short  coupling 
are  indicative  of  constitutional  development.  The  correla- 
tion and  compactness  of  the  body  measures  quite  accurately 
the  amount  of  constitution  which  an  animal  possesses. 

Endurance  is  closely  associated  with  constitutional 
development.  The  value  of  a  draft  animal  is  therefore 
dependent  in  a  large  measure  on  its  enduring  or  lasting 
qualities.  Endurance  is  associated  and  otherwise  indicated 
by  the  structural  condition  of  the  animal,  especially  in  the 
head,  chest,  coupling  and  the  character  of  the  bone,  skin 
and  hair.     A  coarse-textured  bone,  rough,  coarse  hair,  lack 


116  JUDGING  DRAFT  HORSES 

of  definition  and  other  quality  attributes  are  significant  of  low 
enduring  qualities.  Such  development  when  associated  with 
inferior  constitutional  development  is  doubly  significant  of 
inferior  lasting  or  enduring  qualities. 

Temperament. — The  temperament  of  an  animal  is  generally 
portrayed  by  its  general  conformation  and  condition.  The 
work  of  the  draft  animal  is  to  move  loads  or  propel  weight. 
This  naturally  suggests  the  massive,  compact  form  previously 
described  and  therefore  a  less  active  temperament  than  in 
the  light  animal,  which  is  naturally  characterized  by  unusual 
life  and  vigor.  While  there  is  usually  a  wide  variation  in 
the  temperament  or  nerve  force  of  the  draft  and  light  ani- 
mals, sluggishness  should  not  characterize  either  type.  The 
temperament  of  the  draft  horse  is  usually  lymphatic.  Any 
tendency  toward  sluggishness,  however,  is  especially  objec- 
tionable, as  the  draft  animal  should  work  willingly  and  con- 
sistently. There  should  be  a  sufficient  tone  of  the  nervous 
system  maintained,  therefore,  to  insure  this  condition. 

Style  and  Action. — The  style  and  action  of  the  draft  horse 
is  hardly  comparable  to  that  of  the  lighter  types  of  horses, 
although  unusual  style  and  action  are  often  exhibited. 
Draft  horses  are  of  lower  breeding  than  light  horses  and  are, 
therefore,  not  capable  of  exhibiting  comparable  attainments 
with  the  lighter  animals.  However,  there  should  be  every 
indication  of  style  consistent  with  the  type  in  the  general 
make-up  of  the  animal.  The  head  should  be  clean  in  outline, 
the  neck  arched,  the  shoulders  sloping,  the  body  closely 
coupled,  the  quarters  w^ell  muscled,  and  the  body  low  set. 
The  draft  horse  should  exhibit  compactness  and  symmetry 
of  form  throughout. 

The  action  of  the  draft  horse,  while  not  as  highly  developed 
as  in  the  light  horse,  should  possess  all  the  requisites  of  the 
associated  gaits.  Every  phase  of  the  action  should  be  com- 
parable with  the  type  of  the  animal  in  question.  Both 
the  walk  and  the  trot  should  be  characterized  w'ith  a  long, 
regular  stride  and  a  smooth,  straight,  well-balanced  action 
otherwise.  The  walk  is  the  most  important  gait  of  the 
draft  animal.  It  should  be  characterized  by  directness, 
regularity,  smoothness,  and  balance.     Any  deviation  from 


DRAFT  GROUP  OR  TYPE  117 

this  line  of  action  is  objectionable  as  it  shows  faulty  con- 
formation and  may  injure  the  value  of  the  individual  in 
question  or  that  of  future  generations. 

A  stilted  or  rolling  motion  caused  by  a  wide  front  or  by 
the  legs  being  set  improperly  on  the  body  should  be  discrimi- 
nated against  severely,  A  winging  or  paddling  motion  of 
the  feet,  either  at  the  walk  or  trot,  is  extremely  objection- 
able. A  free,  quick,  snappy  walk  and  trot  are  usually 
correlated  with  other  important  attributes  such  as  style, 
breeding,  individuality,  and  finish. 

Score  Card  for  Draft  Horses. 

Perfect  score. 

General  Appe.\rance — 19  Points. 

Height:  estimated hands,  actual.. 

Weight:  over  1600  lbs.;  estimated lbs.  score  accord- 
ing to  age 6 

Form:  broad,   massive,   evenly    proportioned,    symmetrical, 

blocky 4 

Quality:  refined;  bone  clean,  large,  strong;  tendons  clean, 
defined,  prominent;  skin  and  hair  fine;  "feather,"  if  present, 

silky 6 

Temperament:  energetic;  disposition,  good 3 

Head  and  Neck — 8  Points. 

Head:  proportionate   size,    clean    cut,    well    carried;    profile 

straight 1 

Forehead:  broad,  full 1 

Eyes:  bright,  clear,  full,  same  color 1 

Ears:  medium  size,  well  carried,  alert 1 

Muzzle:  neat;  nostrils  large,  flexible;  lips  thin,  even,  firm      .  1 

Lower  Jaw:  angles  wide,  space  clean 1 

Neck:  muscled,  arched;  throat-latch,  fine;  windpipe  large      .         2 
Forehand — 22  Points. 

Shoulder:  moderately  sloping,  smooth,  snug,  extending  well 

back 3 

Arm:  short,  strong  muscled,  thrown  back,  well  set      ...         1 

Forearm:  long,  wide,  clean,  heavily  muscled 2 

Knees:  straight,  wide,  deep,  strong,  clean 2 

Canons:  short,  wide,  clean;  tendons  clean,  defined,  promi- 
nent             2 

Fetlocks:  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean 1 

Pasterns:  moderatelj'  sloping,  strong,  clean 3 

Feet:  large,  even  size,  sound;  horn  dense,  waxy;  soles  concave; 
bars  strong,  fuU;  frogs  large,  elastic;  heels  wide,  one-half 
length  of  toe,  vertical  to  ground 8 

Carried  forward 49 


118  JUDGING  DRAFT  HORSES 

Perfect  score 

Brought  forward 49 

Body — 9  Points. 

Chest:  deep,  wide;  breast  bone  low;  girth,  large     ....  2 

Ribs:  deep,  well  sprung,  closely  ribbed  to  hip 2 

Back:  broad,  strong,  muscular 2 

Loins:  short,  wide,  thick  muscled 2 

Underline:  low,  flanks  full 1 

Hindquarters — 32  Points. 

Hips:  broad,  smooth,  level,  well  muscled 2 

Croup:  wide,  heavily  muscled,  not  markedly  drooping     .  2 

Thighs:  deep,  broad,  strong,  muscular 3 

Quarters:  plump  with  muscle,  deep 2 

Stifles:  large,  strong,  muscular,  clean 2 

Gaskins:  (lower  thighs)  long,  wide,  clean,  heavily  muscled    .  2 
Hocks:  large,  strong,  wide,  deep,  clean,  well  set     ...      .  8 
Canons:  short,  wide,  clean;    tendons  clean,  defined,  promi- 
nent   2 

Fetlocks:  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean 1 

Pasterns:  moderately  sloping,  strong,  clean 2 

Feet:  large,  even  size,  sound;  horn  dense,  waxy;  soles  con- 
cave; bars  strong,  full;  frogs,  large,  elastic;  heels,  wide, 

one-haK  length  of  toe,  vertical  to  ground 6 

Action — 10  Points. 

Walk:  fast,  elastic,  regular,  straight 6 

Trot:  free,  springy,  balanced,  straight 4 

Total 100 

Breed  and  Class  Characteristics. — The  draft  type  of 
horse  is  characterized  by  five  distinct  breeds,  namely:  the 
Percheron,  Belgian,  Clydesdale,  Shire,  and  Suffolk.  While 
the  latter  is  not  of  special  significance,  it  is  well  worthy  of 
consideration.  From  these  breeds  are  drawn  the  various 
market  and  show  classes  of  draft  horses  which  include 
drafters,  loggers,  and  chunks.  The  drafter  is  subdivided 
into  light  and  heavy,  and  chunks  into  eastern  and  export, 
farm  and  southern.  These  terms  are  used  to  distinguish  for 
market  and  show  purposes  only. 

The  following  descriptions  are  used  to  bring  out  the  chief 
characteristics  of  the  draft  breeds  and  the  market  and  show 
classes  which  are  produced,  either  in  the  pure  bred  or  grade 
form,  from  these  breeds. 

Percheron. — The  original  home  of  the  Percheron  horse  is 
La  Perche,  France.  The  breed  has  been  developed  into  an 
excellent  type  of  draft  animal  except  for  some  lack  of  scale 


DRAFT  GROUP  OR  TYPE 


119 


and  inclination  to  light  bone.  The  general  appearance 
of  the  Percheron  is  characteristic  of  the  draft  type,  although 
specimens  of  the  breed  possess  more  rotundity,  smoothness 
of  form,  general  activity  and  refinement  than  other  draft 
breeds.     Stallions  of  approved  breeding  should  weigh  2000 


Fig.  31. — Percheron  stallion. 


to  2200  pounds.  The  weight  of  the  mares  ranges  from  1600 
to  1800  pounds.  The  two  colors  most  in  favor  are  gray  and 
black,  the  former  being  more  desirable  usually.  Other 
colors  such  as  bays,  browns,  and  chestnuts,  characterize 
the  breed.  One  of  the  chief  distinguishing  characteristics 
of  the  Percheron  breed  is  the  weight  which  they  attain, 
at  the  same  time  retaining  quality  and  refinement  more 


120 


JUDGING  DRAFT  HORSES 


characteristic  of  the  light  horse  breeds.  The  temperament 
of  the  Percheron  is  energetic,  the  disposition  good,  ranking 
above  other  draft  breeds.  The  action  of  the  Percheron  is 
rather  unusual  because  of  the  extreme  flexion  possessed 
compared  with  other  draft  breeds.  The  distinguishing 
features  of  the  Percheron  from  other  breeds  is  the  unusual 
refinement,  lighter  bone,  action,  and  high  station.  The  bone 
is  unusually  clean,  not  having  feather  on  the  legs.     Com- 


FiG.  32. — Percheron  mare. 


pared  with  the  Clydesdale  and  the  Shire  the  Percheron  is 
smaller,  having  less  substance,  and  a  more  characteristic 
smooth  turned  body  and  finish. 

The  Percheron  breed  is  sometimes  erroneously  designated 
as  Norman  or  French  Draft.  The  latter  terms  are  not  now  in 
use.  They  include  several  types  of  draft  horses  produced  in 
France  but  not  generally  recognized  as  of  great  significance  in 
this  country.  Certificates  of  registration  should  specify  the 
Percheron  breed  approved  both  in  France  and  America  if 


DRAFT  GROUP  OR  TYPE 


121 


an  imported  animal  and  trace  to  properly  recognized  stock 
if  home-bred. 

Belgian. — The  Belgain  breed  of  draft  horses  is  a  native 
of  Belgium  and  in  this  coimtry  has  reached  a  rather  promi- 
nent position  among  other  draft  breeds.  This  breed  is  noted 
for  its  extreme  low  station,  massiveness,  and  compactness. 
The  head  is  square,  the  neck  very  short,  usually  having  a 


Fig.  33.— French  Draft  stallion. 


rather  heavy  crest.  The  body  is  broad,  deep,  and  exceed- 
ingly compact.  One  of  the  chief  objections  to  the  Belgian 
has  been  the  legs,  which  are  inclined  to  be  large  and  undefined, 
both  in  the  joints  and  in  the  canons,  pasterns,  and  feet. 
This  objection  has  been  overcome,  somewhat,  by  careful 
breeding.  The  two  colors  usually  predominating  are  roan 
and  chestnut,  although  other  colors  such   as  bay,  brown, 


122 


JUDGING  DRAFT  HOUSES 


gray,  and  black  occur.  Because  of  the  extreme  compact- 
ness of  the  Belgian  breed,  grade  animals  are  very  popular 
for  feeding  purposes. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  Belgian  is  that  of  a  massive, 
robust-constitutioned  animal.     The  body  is  broad  and  deep, 


Fig.  34. — Belgian  stallion. 

the  coupling  short,  and  the  hindquarters  exceptionally  well 
developed.  The  action  is  characteristic  of  their  broad, 
massive  development.  Considering  the  weight  and  mas- 
siveness  of  the  breed,  the  action  is  very  smooth  and  free. 
The  chief  objection  to  the  Belgian  is  their  tendency  to 
grossness,  especially  in  the  legs,  rather  small  feet,  short 
neck,  and  general  lack  of  refinement.     The  legs  are  devoid 


DRAFT  GROUP  OR  TYPE  123 

of  the  long  hair  or  feather  characteristic  of  the  Clydesdale 
and  Shire  breeds.  The  roan  color  of  the  Belgian  is  becoming 
very  characteristic  and  in  many  cases  it  is  a  distinguishing 
mark  in  some  of  the  leading  specimens  of  the  breed  which 
have  been  shown  in  this  country.  Compared  with  other 
draft  breeds  the  Belgian  is  lower  set,  broader,  deeper,  and 
more  compact  throughout.  Specimens  do  not  possess  as 
much  refinement  as  the  Clydesdale  or  the  Percheron  breeds. 

Clydesdale. — The  Clydesdale  breed  originated  in  Scotland 
along  the  river  Clyde.  The  breed  is  especially  noted  for 
its  quality  and  characteristic  action.  The  weight  varies 
from  2000  pounds  upward  in  stallions  of  approved  breeding 
and  in  mares  from  1600  to  1800  pounds.  The  color  varies, 
including  bays,  browns,  blacks,  and  grays.  Gray  is  not  a 
characteristic  color,  although  at  one  time  it  was  so.  The 
breed  is  characterized  by  white  markings,  especially  on  the 
face  and  the  four  legs.  White  occurs  sometimes  in  large 
splashes  on  the  body  and  there  may  be  an  intermixture  of 
white  throughout  more  or  less  of  the  body.  The  conforma- 
tion of  the  Clydesdale  is  not  as  drafty  as  in  other  breeds.  The 
body  is  rather  long,  comparatively  shallow,  the  ribs  lacking 
in  length,  and  the  back  somewhat  inclined  to  be  low.  The 
shallowness  of  the  body  gives  specimens  of  the  breed  a 
rather  upstanding  appearance.  Although  the  weight  is 
acceptable,  the  animal  is  not  built  to  the  best  advantage  for 
draft  purposes,  especially  as  compared  with  other  more 
massive  compact  breeds. 

The  action  of  the  Clydesdale  is  one  of  its  most  accept- 
able features.  The  stride  is  long,  quick,  regular,  and  well 
balanced.  The  hock  is  unusually  strongly  constructed,  and 
the  action  corresponds  with  this  condition.  The  quality  of 
the  Cl3^desdale  is  an  important  attribute,  this  characteristic, 
as  in  the  Percheron,  being  unusually  developed.  Action  is 
exemplified  in  the  slope  of  the  shoulders,  pasterns,  and  leg 
development.  The  breed  is  characterized  by  feather  on 
the  legs  and  open-textured,  shelly  feet.  The  chief  criti- 
cisms of  the  breed  are  deficiency  in  scale,  their  short-rib 
development  and  a  criticism  of  the  color  markings,  especially 
the  white,  which  has  no  special  distribution.     The  Clydes- 


124 


JUDGING  DRAFT  HORSES 


Fig.  35. — Clydesdale  stallion. 


Fig.  36. — Clydesdale  mare. 


DRAFT  GROUP  OR  TYPE 


125 


dale  breed  is  comparable  in  many  respects  to  the  Shire, 
although  it  possesses  much  better  quality  and  action  but  less 
scale  than  the  latter. 

Shire. — The  Shire  horse  originated  in  England.  It  is  in 
many  respects  a  complement  to  the  Clydesdale,  which  is 
a  product  of  Scotland.  The  Shire  is  one  of  the  heaviest 
draft  breeds,  from  this  standpoint  giving  them  a  peculiar 
draft  horse  characteristic.     The  colors  of  the  Shire  are  black, 


-.Milie-   c-iailKiU 


bay,  brown,  chestnut,  roan,  and  gray.  The  breed  possesses 
a  very  wide  variation  in  respect  to  color.  It  is  characterized 
by  white  points  similar  to  those  in  the  Clydesdale.  While 
the  Shire  possesses  unusual  substance,  the  breed  is  lacking 
in  quality,  especially  as  compared  with  the  Clydesdale.  The 
hair  and  the  bone  have  a  rather  coarse,  meaty  tendency, 
while  the  hoof  is  often  open  and  shelly  in  texture.  The 
contour  of  the  Shire  is  fair.  The  head  is  rather  large  and 
inclined   to    be   plain.     The    same    condition   is   exhibited 


126 


JUDGING  DRAFT  HORSES 


throughout  the  animal,  meatiness  being  too  closely  asso- 
ciated with  the  breed. 

Closely  associated  with  the  lack  of  quality  and  finish  is 
the  rather  sluggish  temperament  characteristic  of  the  breed. 
The  rather  unusual  development  of  feather,  which  is  in  great 
favor  with  English  breeders,  is  not  entirely  popular  with 


Fig.  38. — Shire  mare. 


American  breeders.  The  action  of  the  Shire  is  what  would 
be  expected  in  an  animal  possessing  the  massiveness  and 
inclination  toward  grossness  which  characterizes  the  breed. 
Compared  with  the  Clydesdale  the  action  is  not  as  snappy, 
direct,  or  as  well  balanced.  The  breed  has  not  become 
popular  in  this  country,  largely  because  of  the  criticisms 
made.     More  quality  with  less  scale  and  substance,  a  better 


DRAFT  GROUP  OR  TYPE 


127 


temperament  and  more  characteristic  action  would  make  the 
breed  much  more  popular.  When  crossed  on  lighter  breeds 
the  Shire  imparts  unusual  size  and  substance  not  usually 
obtained  from  other  breeds. 

Suffolk.— The  Suffolk  is  a  native  of  Suffolk  County, 
England.  AYhile  the  breed  has  been  introduced  in  America 
to  some  extent,  it  has  never  become  popular.  Information 
concerning  the  breed  is  more  interesting  from  an  authorita- 


FiG.  39.— Suffolk  stallion. 


tive  standpoint.  The  color  of  the  Suffolk  is  characteristic. 
Chestnut  of  some  shade  with  very  little  white  accompanying 
it  is  an  established  breed  attribute.  The  mane  and  tail 
are  often  light  or  flaxen.  The  breed  is  not  typical  of  the 
true  draft  type,  as  it  often  lacks  in  scale  and  is  inclined  to  be 
light  in  bone.  The  head  is  of  medium  size,  the  ears  rather 
small  and  erect,  and  the  nose  slightly  inclined  to  be  Roman. 
The  neck  is  comparatively  short,  the  body  fair  in  depth,  and 
the  hindquarters  only  medium  in  development  of  muscle. 
The  bone  is  clean  and  the  legs  free  from  feather,  this  being  a 


128  JUDGING  DRAFT  HORSES 

rather  popular,  although  a  rather  unimportant,  feature  of 
the  breed. 

The  action  of  the  Suffolk  ranks  well,  although  there  is 
a  slight  tendency  to  twist  the  hocks  when  moving.  This 
has  been  largely  overcome,  however,  through  careful  breed- 
ing. The  temperament  and  disposition  of  the  breed  is 
exceedingly  well  developed.  Specimens  of  the  breed  are 
easy  to  keep,  and  considering  their  weight,  are  capable  of 
doing  heavy  and  continuous  work.  They  are  docile,  quiet, 
and  well  managed  under  a  variety  of  conditions.  The  chief 
objections  to  the  breed  are  lack  of  weight,  light  bone,  and 
their  rather  soft,  shelly  feet.  The  breed  has  not  been 
imported  to  any  extent  and  consequently  is  not  widely 
distributed  in  this  country.  Wherever  used,  however,  they 
have  become  quite  popular  for  general  work  on  the  farm. 
Wallace  describes  the  Suffolk  Punch  as  follows : 

"The  Suffolk  Punch  is  named  from  its  native  county, 
and  from  its  compact  and  rounded  form,  its  thick-set  body, 
and  short,  hard,  clean  legs  and  fairly  short  pasterns,  free  from 
coarse  hairs.  The  color  is  chestnut.  White  legs  or  a  bald 
face  are  very  objectionable.  It  is  said  that  the  color  was 
derived  through  a  cross  with  imported  Norwegian  horses, 
brought,  like  some  of  the  progenitors  of  the  trotting  Hackneys, 
by  the  earl}^  Norse  invaders.  The  form  and  action  of  certain 
of  the  Norfolk  hackneys  of  the  day  leave  no  reasonable 
grounds  for  doubting  that;  however,  the  Norfolk  trotter  and 
Suffolk  Punch  may  now  differ  in  size,  style,  and  general 
appearance,  they  must  have  been  intimately  connected 
with  one  another  at  some  period." 

Class  Characteristics. — The  recognized  classes  involved 
in  the  draft  group  or  type,  as  exemplified  in  the  market 
and  show  classes,  include  drafters,  loggers,  and  chunks. 

Drafter.^ — Draft  horses  are  representative  of  the  ideal 
which  characterize  the  market  and  show  ring.  Such  animals 
should  be  broad,  deep,  massive,  and  possess  ample  bone  and 
muscle  development  with  quality  and  refinement.  They 
should  stand  from  15-3  to  17-2  hands  high  and  weigh  not 
under  1600  pounds.     Drafters  are  worked  in  various  ways 

^  See  illustration,  p.  114. 


DRAFT  GROUP  OR  TYPE 


129 


but  usually  in  pairs  and  four-in-hand  hitches.  Single  and 
six-in-hand  hitches  are  rather  uncommon,  especially  the 
latter,  except  for  show  ring  purposes.  The  drafter  should 
be  low  set,  compact,  and  smooth  in  finish.  This  class  is 
characterized  from  the  logger  largely  by  the  superior  quality, 
greater  symmetry,  and  unblemished  condition"  which  they 
should  possess.  Drafters  are  sometimes  divided  into  light 
and  heavv. 


Fig.  40. — Expresser. 

Logger.  —  Loggers  are  a  complement  to  drafters  except 
for  smoothness,  quality,  and  finish.  Such  animals  are 
often  used  for  rough,  heavy  work  where  general  appearance, 
such  as  quality  and  finish,  are  not  required.  Loggers  may 
be  blemished  without  detracting  seriously  from  their  value, 
as  they  are  used  chiefly  in  lumber  camps  or  other  work  where 
showy  appearance  is  not  an  important  attribute. 
9 


130 


JUDGING  DRAFT\HORSES 


DRAFT  GROUP  OR  TYPE 


131 


Chunk.  —  Chunks  are  exemplified  in  animals  possessing 
draft  form  but  lacking  in  scale  and  weight.  The  range 
of  this  class  is  from  850  to  1500  pounds.  Chunks  are  well 
proportioned,  compact,  and  therefore  of  greater  value  under 
conditions  where  handy  weight  is  desirable,  such  as  rather 
rapid  work  in  the  city  or  work  of  a  general  nature  on  the 
farm.  Chunks  are  divided  into  three  classes:  Eastern  and 
export  chunks  stand  from  15  to  16  hands  high  and  weigh 


Fig.  42. — Fire  horses. 


from  1300  to  1550  pounds.  The  action  should  be  elastic, 
straight,  quick,  and  well  balanced.  Farm  chunks  are 
moderate-sized  animals  standing  from  15  to  15-3  hands  high 
and  weighing  from  1200  to  1400  pounds.  The  action 
should  be  quick,  straight  and  well  balanced,  trotting  well 
if  necessary  to  do  so.  Southern  chunks  range  in  height  from 
15  to  15-3  hands  and  weigh  from  850  to  1250  pounds.  They 
are  usually  fine  in  bone,  possess  good  quality,  and  should 
have  good  action.     Because  of  the  varied  sources  from  which 


132  JUDGING  DRAFT  HORSES 

they  are  drawn  there  is  a  plentiful  supply  on  the  market 
and,  consequently,  they  sell  for  very  moderate  prices. 

Expresser.  —  Expressers  are  draft  horses  which  have 
draft  form  with  a  reasonable  amount  of  coach  horse  finish. 
They  range  in  height  from  15-3  to  16-2  hands  and  weigh 
from  1200  to  1500  pounds.  Such  a  horse  must  have  the 
weight  to  carry  a  good  load  and  the  finish  and  action  to 
take  it  at  a  reasonably  fast  rate.  Expressers  should  there- 
fore walk  and  trot  well,  having  straight,  regular  and  well- 
balanced  action  with  both  knee  and  hock  development  and 
more  than  the  usual  flexion. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES. 

Classification. — Light  horses  are  divided  into  four  rather 
distinct  groups  or  types  which  inchide  heavy  harness,  hght 
harness,  saddle  horses,  and  ponies.  Under  each  of  these 
groups  or  types  are  classed  the  various  breeds  and  classes 
representing  or  conforming  to  the  standard  requirements. 
The  four  main  types  included  are  those  recognized  from  the 
market  and  show  yard  standpoint.  The  pure-bred  represen- 
tatives of  these  types  are  represented  in  the  coach  breeds,  the 
American  Standardbred,^  American  Saddle  Horse,  Thorough- 
bred Running  Horse,  and  the  Shetland,  Welsh,  and  Hackney 
pony  breeds. 

HEAVY  HARNESS  GROUP  OR  TYPE. 

The  distinguishing  marks  of  the  heavy  harness  group  or 
type  are  principally  the  form,  symmetry,  finish,  and  action. 
Unless  these  qualifications  are  possessed  in  all  important 
details  horses  belonging  to  this  group  will  neither  show  nor 
sell  to  advantage.  Their  value  is  fixed  largely  by  these 
qualifications.  Contrasted  with  the  other  light  types  of 
horses,  they  are  smoother,  closer  knit,  have  more  finish, 
symmetry,  and  action.  The  head  should  be  medium  in 
size,  clearly  defined,  the  eyes  large  and  the  forehead  broad, 
thus  showing  great  intelligence.  The  face  should  be  straight, 
the  muzzle  large,  the  nostrils  open,  lips  thin,  and  the  angle 
of  the  lower  jaw-bone  wide.  The  throat-latch  should  be 
clean,  the  neck  of  medium  length,  depth,  smoothly  muscled, 
and  set  well  back  on  clearly  defined,  oblique  shoulders.    The 

'  Bred  to  standard  requirements.  See  official  trotting  and  pacing  standards, 
page  152. 

(133) 


134  JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 

body  should  be  round,  the  ribs  well  sprung,  the  coupling 
short,  and  otherwise  full,  smooth,  and  close  knit  in  form. 
The  legs  should  be  straight,  strong,  the  joints  well  defined, 
the  bone  hard,  smooth,  and  dense,  and  the  tendons  should 
extend  well  back  from  the  bone,  thus  giving  a  square,  clean- 
cut,  well-defined  appearance.  Viewed  from  any  angle  the 
heavy  harness  horse  should  be  a  model  of  style,  smoothness 
symmetry,  and  action.  Rough,  undefined  joints  or  other 
parts  of  the  body  so  defined  detract  seriously  from  the 
value  of  animals  belonging  to  this  type.  Quality,  as  indicated 
in  the  bone,  hair,  and  general  refining  attributes,  is  impor- 
tant.    Rotundity  of  form,  smoothness,  symmetry,  general 


M 

Id 

■^Bwjlg.11* 

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r^ 

tPi 

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V 

J  m 

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Fig.  43. — The  cnach  t\i)r. 

refinement,  and  action  with  extreme  flexion  are  the  important 
attributes  of  this  group  or  type. 

Quality. — The  quality  of  the  heavy  harness  horse  is  one 
of  the  chief  attributes.  Combined  with  smoothness  and 
extreme  finish  it  constitutes  one  of  the  real  fundamentals 
in  judging  heavy  harness  horses.  Without  quality  and  the 
usually  associated  style  and  prominent  carriage,  animals  pur- 
porting to  represent  this  type  would  not  only  be  objectionable 
but  ordinarily  disqualified.  Representatives  of  the  type 
should  be  able  to  appear  and  act  in  accordance  with  the 
highest  qualifications  of  show  ring  judging. 

Temperament. — The  temperament  of  the  heavy  harness 
horse  should  be  lively  and  characteristic  of  continued  display 


HEAVY  HARNESS  GROUP  OR  TYPE 


135 


of  style  and  action.  Any  inclination  to  a  lymphatic  or 
sluggish  temperament  depicts  qualities  not  associated  or 
acceptable  in  the  heavy  harness  breeds.  As  a  whole  a  mere 
glance  at  an  animal  of  this  type  should  indicate  a  complete 
harmonious  correlation  in  a  smooth,  close-knit  form,  high 
finish  and  extreme  flexion  of  the  knees  and  hocks  in  action. 
These  qualities  should  all  be  directly  associated  or  correlated 
with  a  strong,  highly  developed  nervous  organism. 


Fig.  44. — -Action  oi  the  coach  horse,  illustrating  extreme  flexion. 


Action. — Action  in  the  heavy  harness  horse  is  intermediate 
in  speed  between  the  draft  and  light  harness  breeds.  Extreme 
speed  is  not  desirable.  Such  qualities  are  unassociated  with 
the  high  knee  and  hock  action  desired.  Speed  and  style  in 
the  action  of  the  heavy  harness  horse  are  antagonistic.  The 
stride  should  be  of  medium  length,  direct,  regular,  high,  and 
well  balanced.    A  continuous,  regular  folding  and  unfolding  of 


136 


JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 


the  legs  when  in  action  is  characteristic  of  the  desired  move- 
ment in  this  type  of  horse. 

Breed  Characteristics. — The  heavy  harness  group  includes 
three  rather  significant  breeds  and  one  other,  the  Cleveland 
Bay,  not  of  special  importance  in  this  country.  From  the 
standpoint  of  market  and  show  ring  classes,  this  group 
or  type  includes  four  regular  classes,  namely:  coach,  park. 


French  Coarli  stallion. 


cob,  cab,  and  the  runabout,  which  is  intermediate  between 
the  heavy  and  light  harness  types. 

French  Coach. — The  French  Coach  breed  was  originally  a 
Demi-sang  or  Half-blood.  Because  of  this  fact  the  breed  is 
not  as  uniform  in  type  as  those  which  have  been  purer  bred  for 
a  specific  purpose,  keeping  the  blood  lines  intact,  as  in  all 
recognized  pure  breeds.  The  type  of  the  French  Coach  is 
somewhat  rangier  and  more  upstanding  than  the  German 
Coach.     The  height  averages  about  16  hands  and  the  weight 


HEAVY  HARNESS  GROUP  OR  TYPE  137 

ranges  from  1150  to  1400  pounds.  The  color  is  usually  solid, 
with  one  or  more  white  points.  Brown,  dark  bay,  chestnut, 
and  black  are  the  predominating  colors.  Specimens  of  this 
breed  are  usually  showy  in  front,  although  the  type  varies  to 
a  considerable  extent.  Some  animals  show  too  much  slug- 
gishness at  times  for  the  best  display  of  style  and  action. 

The  body  of  the  French  Coach  is  longer,  and  has  less  depth 
than  the  German  Coach.  The  head  is  broad  and  of  medium 
length,  the  ears  erect,  and  the  eyes  bright  and  prominent,  the 
general  make-up  of  the  head  and  neck  showing  considerable 
intelligence  and  refinement.  The  shoulders  are  usually  slop- 
ing, the  back  reasonably  short,  and  the  underline  long  and 
straight.  The  action  of  the  French  Coach  is  quite  character- 
istic of  the  heavy  harness  breeds,  showing  considerable  style 
and  flexion  in  the  execution  of  the  gaits,  although  there  is  a 
tendency  for  the  hock  action  not  to  correspond  to  that  in 
front.  The  quality  is  not  as  well  developed  as  in  the  Hack- 
ney, although  it  is  somewhat  better  than  in  the  German 
Coach.  The  temperament  is  active,  although  a  characteristic 
not  generally  as  regularly  associated  with  this  breed  as  with 
the  Hackney. 

German  Coach. — The  German  Coach  breed  is  a  native  of 
Northwestern  Germany.  It  is  bred  especially  in  Han- 
over, Oldenburg,  Schleswig-Holstein,  and  the  district 
of  East  Friesland.  Representatives  of  this  breed  have 
been  variously  distributed  in  this  country  as  Hanoverian, 
Oldenburg,  and  German  Coach.  The  breed  is  characterized 
by  a  solid  color,  either  of  bay,  brown  or  black,  with  one  or 
more  white  points,  usually  on  the  hindfeet  and  in  the  face. 
The  breed  averages  about  16  hands  high  and  ranges  from 
1200  to  1450  pounds  in  weight.  The  body  is  somewhat 
larger  and  coarser  than  in  the  French  Coach.  On  the  whole, 
the  breed  possesses  more  scale,  less  quality,  and  not  as 
characteristic  action  as  the  French  Coach.  There  is  an 
inclination  to  grossness  and  meatiness  which  is  objectionable, 
especially  in  heavy  harness  horses. 

Compared  with  the  French  Coach,  the  breed  is  less 
rangy,  having  a  closer  knit  form.  The  back  is  shorter,  the 
coupling  closer,  and  there  is  usually  greater  depth  of  body. 


138 


JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 


In  quality  the  breed  does  not  exhibit  as  much  smoothness 
or  finish  as  desirable.  The  hair  and  bone  have  an  inclination 
to  be  coarse  and  the  joints  somewhat  large  and  meaty. 
The  temperament  is  very  good,  although  too  much  grossness 
and  sluggishness  are  exhibited  in  some  specimens  of  the 


Fig.  46. — German  Coach  stallion. 


breed.  Conformation  with  less  draftiness  and  more  refine- 
ment in  the  features  throughout  would  be  desirable  attributes. 
The  action  is  not  as  high  or  as  flashy  as  in  the  other  recognized 
coach  breeds.  Often  not  enough  speed  is  exhibited  to  give 
a  harmonious,  pleasing,  well-balanced  action,  which  is  so 
much  desired. 


HEAVY  HARNESS  GROUP  OR  TYPE 


139 


Hackney. — The  Hackney  horse  is  an  Enghsh  product, 
and  from  the  standpoint  of  style,  smoothness,  symmetry, 
and  action  is  especially  characteristic  of  the  attributes  and 
attainments  desired  in  heavy  harness  horses.  The  type  is 
usually  associated  with  a  prominent  breast,  short  back,  a 
long,  level,  broad  croup,  deep  ribs,  short  legs,  and  an  extreme 
carriage  of  head  and  neck.  The  body  is  round,  close  knit,  well 
coupled,  and  usually  exhibits  good  bone  and  extreme  refine- 


FiG.  47. — Hackney  characteristics. 


ment.  The  height,  exclusive  of  ponies  and  intermediate 
tjT)es,  ranges  from  15-2  to  15-3  hands,  and  the  weight  from 
1100  to  1300  pounds.  The  color  of  the  Hackney  varies. 
Chestnuts,  bays,  and  browns  are  the  leading  colors,  the 
former  predominating;  white  markings  all  around  are  quite 
characteristic.  The  Hackney  breed  is  typical  of  the  attributes 
desired  in  heavy  harness  animals,  possessing  the  refinement, 
the  smooth-turned  form,  unusual  style  and  well-balanced 
hock  and  knee  action,  the  former  being  especially  developed. 


140 


JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 


HEAVY  HARNESS  GROUP  OR  TYPE 


141 


The  breed  as  a  whole  is  smaller  but  closer  knit  than  either 
the  French  or  German  Coach.  The  contour  and  lines  of 
the  Hackney  are  well  proportioned.  The  face  is  straight, 
the  neck  of  medium  length,  well  crested  and  the  body  and 
hindquarters  deeply  and  smoothly  muscled  throughout, 
giving  the  smooth  finish  desired.  The  temperament  is  good, 
specimens  of  the  breed  being  bold,  active,  and  stylish  in 
appearance.  The  disposition  is  docile,  and  the  breed 
otherwise  well  mannered.     The  action  of  the  Hacknev  is 


Fig.  49.---K.',1  i  |,.U(1— 1 


ting  bred. 


characterized  by  extreme  height  and  retarded  speed  because 
of  the  high  action  exhibited.  The  Hackney  is  regarded  as 
having  more  of  the  true  coach  characteristics  than  other 
coach  breed.  The  Hackney  Stud  Book  does  not  discriminate 
between  full-sized  Hackneys  and  Ponies  which  are  14-2  hands 
or  under  in  height.  Many  specimens  of  the  breed  are  pro- 
duced by  mating  mares  with  pony  stallions  or  vice  versa, 
resulting  in  undersized  individuals  which  possess  extreme 
cobby  characteristics. 

Cleveland    Bay. — The    Cleveland    Bay    is    not    a    widely 
distributed    breed,   although    deserving    of    consideration. 


142 


JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 


HEAVY  HARNESS  GROUP  OR  TYPE 


143 


This  is  the  largest  of  the  coach  breeds,  the  height  ranging 
from  16  to  16-3  hands  and  the.  weight  from  1200  to  1500 
pounds.  Because  of  the  extreme  size,  and  ahhough  classed 
as  a  coach  breed,  it  is  used  for  various  kinds  of  work.  For- 
merly the  breed  was  used  for  general  diligence  purposes. 
Later  crossing  with  the  Thoroughbred  reduced  the  size 
somewhat  and  added  style  and  finish.  The  body  of  the 
Cleveland  Bay  is  rather  large,  the  shoulders  sloping,  the 
back  short,  and  the  body  deep.  The  head  is  somewhat 
lacking  in  refinement  and  not  as  much  quality  is  exhibited 


Fig.  51. — Coach  horses. 


generally  as  is  desirable.  The  action  is  not  characteristic 
of  heavy  harness  breeds  but  rather  strong  and  powerful  in 
execution. 

The  color  of  the  Cleveland  Bay  is  either  light  or  dark  bay, 
as  the  name  indicates.  The  legs,  mane,  and  tail  are  usually 
black.  White  is  permissible  only  to  a  very  limited  extent, 
there  frequently  being  a  small  star  in  the  forehead.  The 
temperament  is  not  characteristic  of  the  typical  coach  breeds. 
This  is  indicated  in  the  more  drafty  form,  weight,  and  lack 
of  style,  finish,  and  action.  The  disposition  of  the  breed  is 
only  fair.     It   is   important  in  this  country  only  from  an 


144 


JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 


HEAVY  HARNESS  GROUP  OR  TYPE  145 

authoritive  standpoint,  very  few  specimens  having  been 
introduced. 

Class  Characteristics. — The  heavy  harness  group  includes 
coach,  park,  cob,  cab  and  runabout,  the  latter  being  inter- 
mediate between  the  heavy  and  light  harness  groups. 

Coach  Horse. — The  coach  horse  should  have  quality, 
style,  smoothness,  and  action.  The  weight  usually  ranges 
from  1150  to  1250  pounds  and  the  height  is  approximately 
16  hands.  Coach  horses  are  driven  to  various  vehicles  and 
should  go  about  8  miles  per  hour.  The  specific  use  to  which 
they  are  put  requires  a  lively  temperament,  good  disposition 
and  faultless  manners.  They  are  used  largely  in  cities 
where  style  should  be  manifested,  both  at  the  walk,  trot, 
and  when  at  rest. 

Park  Horse. — Park  horses  are  classified  by  height.  They 
should  possess  unusual  style,  symmetry,  refinement  and 
action  as  they  represent  the  extreme  show  type.  They  are 
driven  singly,  in  pairs,  and  in  fours  to  various  types  of  vehicles. 

Cob. — Cob  horses  are  very  close,  full-made  animals  with 
extreme  finish  and  high  action.  They  should  possess 
superior  quality,  fine,  clean  bone,  unusual  muscular  develop- 
ment, and  comparatively  short  legs.  They  are  intermediate 
between  the  heavy  harness  and  pony  groups. 

Cab  Horse. — Cab  horses  are  of  much  the  same  type  as 
the  coach  horse,  many  of  them  being  the  lower  grades  of  the 
coach  class.  They  should  possess  symmetry  of  form,  good 
bone  and  feet,  a  close  coupling,  and  unusual  constitution  and 
endurance.  These  horses  are  used  for  a  cheaper  trade  than 
coach  horses  and  are  usually  not  maintained  in  as  high 
condition. 

Runabout. — The  runabout  horse  is  intermediate  between 
the  light  and  heavy  harness  groups.  It  should  approximate 
15  hands  high  and  have  both  the  characteristics  of  the  road 
horse  and  the  park  horse,  the  speed  of  the  former  and  the 
style  and  action  of  the  latter,  although  not  to  the  extreme. 
The  name  indicates  the  kind  of  service  for  which  the  runabout 
horse  is  used. 


10 


146  JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 


Score  Card  for  Heavy  Harness  Horses. 

General  Appearance — 12  Points.  Perfect  score. 

Height- 
Weight: 

Form:  close,  full  made,  smooth  turned,  symmetrical  ...         4 
Quality:  bone  clean,   dense,  fine,  yet  indicating  substance; 
tendons  and  joints  sharply  defined;  hide  and  hair  fine; 

general  refinement,  finish .      ...         4 

Temperament:  proud,  bold,  stylish,  disposition  good,  intelli- 
gent              4 

Head  and  Neck — 7  Points. 

Head:  size  and  dimensions  in  proportion,  clear-cut  features, 

straight  face  line,  wide  angle  in  lower  jaw 1 

Forehead:  broad,  full 1 

Eyes:  prominent  orbit,  large,  full,  bright,  clear,  lid  thin,  even 

curvature 1 

Ears:  medium  size,  fine,  pointed,  set  close,  carried  alert  .      .  1 

Muzzle:  fine,  nostrils  large,  lips  thin,  trim,  even     ....  1 
Neck:  long,  lofty  carriage,  high  crest,  throttle  well  cut  out, 

head  well  set  on 2 

Forehand — 22  Points. 

Shoulders:  long,  oblique,  smooth 2 

Arms:  short,  muscular,  carried  well  forward 1 

Forearms:  broad,  muscular 1 

Knees:  straight,  wide,  deep,  strongly  supported     ....         2 
Canons:  short,  broad,  flat,  tendons  sharply  defined,  set  well 

back 2 

Fetlocks:  wide,  tendons  well  back,  straight,  well  supported    .         2 
Pasterns:  long,  oblique  (45  degrees),  smooth,  strong  ...         2 
Feel:  large,  round,  uniform,  straight,  slope  of  wall  parallel  to 
slope  of  pastern,  sole  concave,  bars  sti'ong,  frog  large,  elastic, 
heels  wide,  full,  one-third  height  of  toe,  horn  dense,  smooth, 

dark  color 6 

Legs:  direction  viewed  from  in  front,  perpendicular  line 
dropped  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  should  divide  the 
leg  and  foot  into  two  lateral  halves;  viewed  from  the  side, 
a  perpendicular  line  dropped  from  the  tuberosity  of  the 
scapula  should  pass  through  the  center  of  the  elbow-joint 
and  meet  the  ground  at  the  center  of  the  foot    ....         4 

Body — 11  Points. 

Withers:  well  set  up,  narrow,  extending  well  back       ...  2 

Chest:  wide,  deep 2 

Ribs:  well  sprung,  long,  close 2 

Back:  short,  straight,  strong,  broad 2 

Loin:  short,  broad,  strongly  coupled 2 

Flank:  deep,  full,  long,  low  underline 1 

Carried  forward 52 


LIGHT  HARNESS  GROUP  OR  TYPE  147 

Perfect  score. 
Brought  forward 52 

Hindquarters — 32  Points. 

Hips:  broad,  round,  smooth 2 

Cro7ip:  long,  level,  round,  smooth 2 

Tail:  set  high,  well  carried 2 

Thighs:  full,  muscular 2 

Stifles:  broad,  full,  muscular 2 

Gaskins:  broad,  muscular 2 

Hocks:  straight,    wide,    point   prominent,    deep,    clean    cut, 

smooth,  well  supported 6 

Canons:    short,    broad,    flat,    tendons    sharply   defined,    set 

well  back 2 

Fetlocks:  wide,  tendons  well  back,  straight,  well  supported    .         2 

Pasterns:  long,  oblique  (50  degrees),  smooth,  strong  ...         2 

Feet:  large,    round    (slightly   less   than   in   front),    uniform^ 

straight,  slope  of  wall  parallel  to  slope  of  pastern,  sole 

concave,  bars  strong,  frog  large  and  elastic,  heels  wide, 

full  one-tliird  height  of  toe,   horn  dense,   smooth,   dark 

color 4 

Legs:  direction  viewed  from  the  rear,  a  perpendicular  line 
dropped  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  divide  the 
leg  and  foot  into  lateral  halves;  viewed  from  the  side  this 
same  line  should  touch  the  point  of  the  hock  and  meet  the 
ground  some  little  distance  back  of  the  heel.  A  perpen- 
dicular line  dropped  from  the  hip-joint  should  meet  the 
ground  near  the  center  of  the  foot 4 

Action — 16  Points. 

Walk:  straight,  snappy,  springy,  proud,  stylish      ....         6 
Trot:  in  line,  bold,  flashy,  extreme  flexion  of  knees  and  hocks, 
balanced,  regular 10 


100 


LIGHT  HARNESS  GROUP  OR  TYPE. 

The  light  harness  group  or  type  is  represented  by  two 
rather  distinct  classes  known  as  the  speed  or  race  horse,  and 
the  roadster.  While  these  classes  are  distinctly  different, 
they  are  both  characterized  by  certain  well-defined  attributes 
or  qualifications. 

Conformation. — Speed  and  roadster  attainments  in  light 
harness  horses  are  the  chief  requisites  to  be  considered 
in  judging  these  animals.  These  attainments  are  depicted 
in  the  height,  weight,  structural  conformation,  quality,  tern- 


148 


JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 


perament,  and  finish.  The  form  of  the  light  harness 
horse  should  show  all  indications  of  speed  and  roadster 
qualifications,  yet  maintain  the  desired  style,  endurance 
and  finish  to  a  degree  depending  on  the  use  made  of  the 
animal.  This  necessitates  an  animal  with  a  more  rangy, 
yet  reasonably  close-made  form  than  in  the  heavy  har- 
ness group  or  type.  The  head  should  be  medium  in 
size,  broad  between  the  eyes  and  clearly  defined,  showing 
ample  intelligence,  as  this  is  very  much  desired  in  horses 


Fig.  53. — The  light  harness  type. 

used  for  light  harness  purposes.  The  shoulders  should 
be  long  and  oblique,  the  back  short,  the  underline  long, 
the  animal  closely  coupled,  but  with  more  depth  of  body 
in  comparison  to  width,  than  in  the  heavy  harness  group, 
A  close,  full-made  form  impedes  free  action  and  the 
ability  to  walk  and  trot  at  well-balanced,  uniform  gaits. 
While  the  walk  is  an  important  gait,  a  large  amount  of  the 
work  of  the  light  harness  group  is  performed  at  the  trot, 
and  this  gait  therefore  should  be  given  chief  consideration, 
except  in  animals  which  are  specially  characterized  by  the 
pacing  gait. 


LIGHT  HARNESS  GROUP  OR  TYPE  149 

In  contradistinction  to  the  heavy  harness  group,  Hght 
harness  horses,  as  the  name  suggests,  possess  less  weight,  a 
more  rangy  and  upstanding  body,  a  deeper  body  in  propor- 
tion to  the  width,  longer  and  thinner  muscles,  more  reach 
in  the  stride,  and  all-around  lower  going  action.  This 
group  should  be  characterized  by  just  the  reverse  of  the 
heavy  harness  type,  which  is  characterized  by  high  action 
with  a  degree  of  flexion,  depending  on  the  particular  class 
under  consideration. 

Quality. — Quality  is  an  essential  characteristic  in  animals 
which  perform  under  severe  strain.  This  is  particularly 
true  of  the  light  harness  horse  which  may  be  subjected 
to  moderate  road  driving  or  to  the  severest  trials  on  the 
track.  Quality  is  indicated  by  a  clearly  defined  head,  fine, 
dense  bone,  with  no  inclination  to  meatiness,  smooth,  well- 
made  joints,  fine,  silky  hair,  and  in  general,  a  finish  indicative 
of  hard,  wearing  qualities.  Undefined  features,  open,  spongy 
bone,  characterized  by  meatiness,  rough,  open  joints  and  lack 
of  symmetr\^  and  finish  indicate  just  the  reverse  of  what 
is  wanted  in  speed  and  endurance  requirements.  Animals 
of  this  group  should  look  and  appear  as  possessing  the  hard, 
enduring  usage  which  is  required  of  them. 

Durability.- — Durability  is  an  attribute  which  is  usually 
associated  with  an  animal  possessing  the  quality  attainments 
formerly  described.  As  the  term  indicates,  every  part  of  the 
conformation  should  be  of  such  quality  and  so  constructed 
in  the  blending  of  the  finished  animal  that  it  emphasizes 
the  possession  of  durability  attributes  to  the  very  depth 
or  nucleus  of  the  structure.  A  strong  constitution  is  indi- 
cated in  a  large,  well-defined  muzzle,  large  nostrils,  large, 
bright,  prominent  eyes,  and  a  broad,  and  unusually  deep 
chest.  These  qualities  are  directly  associated  with  dura- 
bility. 

Temperament. — The  temperament  of  the  light  harness 
group  should  be  highly  developed  and  active,  thus  directly 
opposed  to  the  temperament  which  characterizes  the  draft 
group.  Hard,  wearing  qualities  are  directly  associated  with 
the  strong  nerve  force  exhibited  in  the  characteristic  light 
harness  horse. 


150 


JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 


Breed  and  Class  Characteristics. — The  light  harness 
group  is  represented  by  the  American  vStandardbred,  which 
is  the  nearest  exponent  of  pure  breeding,  as  grouped  under 
the  breeds  in  the  classification  of  horses,  and  by  the  speed 
or  race  horse  and  roadster,  as  grouped  under  class  charac- 
teristics. The  former  is  subdivided,  merely  by  a  distinction 
in  the  gaits,  into  the  trotter  and  pacer. 


American  Standardbred. — The  American  Standardbred,  as 
an  exponent  of  pure  breeding/'  is  represented  by  the  trotter 
and  pacer.  This  subdivision  in  conjunction  with  the  top 
crossing  with  the  Thoroughbred,  which  has  been  introduced 
in  the  Standardbred,  is  responsible  for  the  wide  variation 
which  exists  in  the  type.  The  color  is  not  uniform,  a  large 
number  of  colors  prevailing  in  various  allied  shades,  bay 
being  the  predominating  color.     The   height  ranges  from 

'  See  Official  Trotting  and  Pacing  Standard,  page  152. 


LIGHT  HARNESS  GROUP  OR  TYPE 


151 


15-1  to  16  hands,  and  the  weight  from  800  to  1100  pounds 
or  over  in  animals  possessing  the  smoother  road  horse 
characteristics,  although  there  are  many  smaller  types 
possessing  more  or  less  value,  depending  on  the  use  made  of 
the  animal.  In  the  best  development  of  this  breed,  specimens 
possess  good  quality,  conformation,  and  refinement.  Such 
specimens  should  possess  clean,  well-defined  heads,  a  neck 


Fig.  55. — Morgan  hors 


of  medium  length,  refined,  and  moderately  arched,  sloping, 
well-made  shoulders,  a  strong  back,  broad  loin,  muscular 
croup,  strong  coupling,  clean,  well-defined  bone,  and  general 
symmetry  and  finish. 

Horses  of  this  latter  stamp  are  more  largely  used  for  road 
purposes,  as  defined  under  the  roadster  class.  Top  crossing 
with  Standardbred  stallions  of  this  stamp  is  practised  widely 

'  The  U.  S.  Government  has  important  work  under  way  with  this  horse 
at  Middlebury,  Vermont. 


152  JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 

in  breeding  grade  roadster  horses  possessing  the  quality, 
conformation,  endurance,  and  finish  of  the  smoother  made 
representatives  of  the  breed.  The  style  and  temperament 
of  such  animals  is  usually  good,  possessing  sufficient  spirit 
and  snap  to  render  them  most  acceptable  for  light  harness 
service,  as  equipped  for  road  work.  Taken  as  a  whole,  the 
Standardbred,  from  the  breed  standpoint,  varies  greatly  in 
type,  size,  color,  and  performance.  This  of  necessity  requires 
a  special  treatise  on  the  various  types  represented  by  the 
general  type  to  understand  the  breed  thoroughly. 

Official  Standard  of  the  American  Trotting  Register  Asso- 
ciation— Trotting  Standard,^ — When  an  animal  meets  these 
requirements  and  is  duly  registered  it  shall  be  accepted 
as  a  Standardbred  trotter : 

1,  The  progeny  of  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse 
and  a  registered  standard  trotting  mare, 

2,  A  stallion  sired  by  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse, 
provided  his  dam  and  grand  dam  were  sired  by  registered 
standard  trotting  horses,  and  he  himself  has  a  trotting 
record  of  2:30  and  is  the  sire  of  three  trotters  with  records 
of  2 :30  from  different  mares. 

3,  A  mare  whose  sire  is  a  registered  standard  trotting 
horse,  and  whose  dam  and  grand  dam  were  sired  by  regis- 
tered standard  trotting  horses,  provided  she  herself  has  a 
trotting  record  of  2:30  or  is  the  dam  of  one  trotter  with  a 
record  of  2:30, 

4,  A  mare  sired  by  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse, 
provided  she  is  the  dam  of  two  trotters  with  records  of  2 :30, 

5,  A  mare  sired  by  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse, 
provided  her  first,  second,  and  third  dams  are  each  sired  by 
a  registered  standard  trotting  horse. 

Pacing  Standard. — When  an  animal  meets  these  require- 
ments and  is  duly  registered,  it  shall  be  accepted  as  a 
Standardbred  pacer: 

1.  The  progeny  of  a  registered  standard  pacing  horse  and 
a  registered  standard  pacing  mare. 

2.  A  stallion  sired  by  a  registered  standard  pacing  horse, 
provided  his  dam  and  grand  dam  were  sired  by  registered 
standard  pacing  horses,  and  he  himself  has  a  pacing  record 


LIGHT  HARNESS  GROUP  OR  TYPE  153 

of  2:25,  and  is  the  sire  of  three  pacers  with  records  of  2:25, 
from  different  mares. 

3.  A  mare  whose  sire  is  a  registered  standard  pacing  horse 
and  whose  dam  and  grand  dam  were  sired  by  registered 
standard  pacing  horses,  provided  she  herself  has  a  pacing 
record  of  2 :25,  or  is  the  dam  of  one  pacer  with  a  record  of  2 :25. 

4.  A  mare  sired  by  a  registered  standard  pacing  horse, 
provided  she  is  the  dam  of  two  pacers  with  records  of  2:25. 

5.  A  mare  sired  by  a  registered  standard  pacing  horse, 
provided  her  first,  second,  and  third  dams  are  each  sired  by 
a  registered  standard  pacing  horse. 

6.  The  progeny  of  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse 
out  of  a  registered  standard  pacing  mare,  or  a  registered 
standard  pacing  horse  out  of  a  registered  standard  trotting 
mare. 

Class  Characteristics. — The  light  harness  type  is  repre- 
sented by  the  speed  or  race  horse  and  the  roadster,  differing 
in  the  following  attributes: 

Speed  or  Race  Horse. — ^The  speed  or  race  horse  has  two 
distinct  gaits,  namely,  the  trot  and  pace,  the  former  being 
a  diagonal  two-beat  gait  and  the  latter  a  lateral  two-beat 
gait.  The  chief  distinction  is  in  the  action.  However, 
there  are  certain  points  in  the  conformation  which  makes  the 
speed  horse  naturally  trot  or  pace.  By  the  use  of  mechanical 
appliances  or  under  proper  training  otherwise,  a  trotter  may 
be  trained  to  pace  or  vice  versa.  The  speed  horse  should 
have  ample  enduring  qualities  for  the  severest  test  on  the 
race  course.  Speed  is  the  first  requirement  and,  consequently, 
conformation  is  not  given  the  usual  amount  of  consideration. 
While  a  great  many  speed  horses  have  the  conformation  of  the 
smoother  road  horse  type,  it  is  only  by  direct  association  and 
natural  inclination  that  such  animals  become  noted  speed 
performers.  Pacers,  as  distinguished  from  trotters,  are  fre- 
quently prominent  at  the  withers,  usually  higher  and  more 
sloping  in  the  croup,  in  general  showing  a  less  symmetrical 
development  than  the  trotting  animal. 

Roadster. — The  roadster  animal  should  possess  a  smooth, 
well-finished  conformation  with  the  approved  symmetry  and 
finish  characteristic  of  the  smooth-turned  Standardbred  indi- 


154 


JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 


tf 


LIGHT  HARNESS  GROUP  OR  TYPE 


155 


vidiial.  Specimens  should  possess  in  addition  regular,  well- 
balanced  action  for  drawing  a  light  vehicle  at  a  rapid  rate 
when  necessary.  Pacers  are  not  usually  recognized  as  the 
most  acceptable  in  this  class.  They  require  a  smooth  surface 
for  their  best  performance,  and  because  of  this  they  are  not 
widely  adapted  to  general  road  purposes. 


Fiu.  57. — Roadster  team. 
Score  Card  for  Light  Harxess  Horses. 

Perfect  score. 

General  Appearance — 12  Points. 
Height: 
Weight: 

Form:  symmetrical,  smooth,  stylish 4 

Quality:  bone  clean,  firm,  and  indicating  sufficient  substance; 


tendons  defined;  hair  and  skin  fine 

Temperament:  active,  kind  disposition 

Head  and  Xeck — 6  Points. 

Head:  lean,  straight 

Muzzle:  fine,  nostrils  large;  lips  thin,  even,  teeth  sound    . 

Eyes:  full,  bright,  clear,  large 

Forehead:  broad,  full 

Ears:  medium  size,  pointed,  well  carried,  and  not  far  apart 
Neck:  muscled;  crest  high;  throat-latch,  fine;  windpipe  large 


Carried  forward 


18 


156  JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 

Perfect  score. 

Brought  forward 18 

Forehand — 23  Points. 

Shoulders:  long,    smooth    with    muscle,    oblique,    extending 

into  back 2 

Arms:  short,  thrown  forward 1 

Forearms:  muscled,  long,  wide 2 

Knees:  clean,  wide,  straight,  deep,  strongly  supported      .      .         2 

Canons:  short,  wide;  sinews,  large,  set  back 2 

Fetlocks:  wide,  straight 1 

Pasterns:  strong,  angle  with  ground  45  degrees      ....         3 
Feet:  medium,  even  size,  straight;   horn  dense;  frog  large, 

elastic;  bars  strong;  sole  concave;  heel  wide  ....  6 
Legs:  viewed  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of 
the  shoulder  shoxild  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  knee,  canon, 
pastern,  and  foot.  From  the  side,  a  perpendicular  hne 
dropping  from  the  center  of  the  elbow-joint  should  meet 
the  ground  at  the  center  of  the  foot,  fall  upon  the  center 
of  the  knee  and  pastern  joints  and  back  of  hoof.  .  .  4 
Body — 10  Points. 

Withers:  muscled  and  well  finished  at  top 1 

Chest:  deep,  low,  large  girth 2 

Rihs:  long,  sprung,  close 2 

Back:  straight,  short,  broad,  muscled 2 

Loin:  wide,  short,  thick 2 

Underline:  long;  flank  let  down 1 

Hindquarters — 29  Points. 

Hips:  smooth,  wide,  level 2 

Croup:  long,  wide,  muscular 2 

Tail:  attached  high,  well  carried 1 

Thighs:  long,  muscular,  spread,  open  angled 2 

Quarters:  heavily  muscled,  deep 2 

Gaskin  or  Lower  Thighs:  long,  wide,  muscular        ....         2 

Hocks:  clearly  defined,  wide,  straight 5 

Canons:  short,  wide;  sinews,  large,  set  back 2 

Fetlocks:  wide,  straight 1 

Pasterns:  strong,  sloping 2 

Feet:  medium,   even  size;  straight;  horn  dense,  frog  large, 

elastic;  bars  strong;  sole  concave;  heel  wide,  high  ...  4 
Legs:  viewed  from  behind;  a  perpendicular  Une  from  the 
point  of  the  bottock  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the 
hock,  canon,  pastern,  and  foot.  From  the  side,  a  perpen- 
dicular line  from  the  hip  joint  should  fall  upon  the  center 
of  the  foot  and  divide  the  gaskin  in  the  middle;  and  a  per- 
pendicular line  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  run 
parallel  with  the  line  of  the  canon 4 

Action — 20  Points. 

Walk:  elastic,  quick,  balanced 5 

Trot:  rapid,  straight,  regular,  moderately  high      ....        15 

Total 100 


SADDLE  GROUP  OR  TYPE 


157 


SADDLE  GROUP  OR  TYPE. 

The  saddle  group  or  type  is  represented  from  the  pure- 
bred standpoint  in  the  American  Saddle  Hor^e  and  the 
Thoroughbred  running  horse.  The  group  is  further  exem- 
plified in  the  following  classes,  which  include  the  combination 
horse,  possessing  both  light  harness  and  saddle  attributes, 


Fig.  58. — The  saddle  type. 


the  walk-trot-canter    horse,  the  gaited  horse,  the  hunter, 
cavalry,  and  race  horse  or  runner. 

American  Saddle  Horse. — The  x\merican  Saddle  Horse  is 
an  American  product,  as  the  name  suggests.  It  is  the  result 
of  using  Thoroughbred  blood  with  mares  which  had  the 
inclination  to  amble,  this  forming  the  foundation  for  the 
saddle  horse  gaits.  The  general  form  of  the  saddle  horse  does 
not  differ  materially  from  the  Standardbred  roadster,  possess- 
ing the  superior,  close-knit  conformation.     The  height  of  the 


158  JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 

American  Saddle  Horse  varies  on  the  average  from  15-1  to 
15-3  hands,  and  ranges  in  weight  from  950  to  1050  pounds. 
Specimens  of  the  well-bred  saddle  horse  usually  exhibit  ex- 
treme style,  the  body  being  very  close  and  neatly  turned. 
The  shoulders  and  pasterns  should  be  oblique,  yet  strong 
enough  to  endure  the  work  for  which  they  are  used.  The 
predominating  colors  are  bay,  brown,  chestnut,  and  black, 
usually  being  marked  with  one  or  more  white  points.  The 
best  types  of  the  American  Saddle  Horse  are  exemplified  in 
beauty,  symmetry,  and  finish.  They  are  well  proportioned, 
the  lines  clearly  defined,  the  countenance  intelligent,  and 
the  head  and  neck  usually  possessing  a  most  characteristic, 
lofty,  graceful,  carriage,  or  position.  The  especially  marked 
carriage  of  the  head  and  neck,  the  sloping  shoulders  and 
pasterns,  the  smooth,  round-turned  body  and  the  long, 
level  croup  with  high  set  and  gracefully  carried  tail  are  char- 
acteristics which  are  not  only  desired  but  usually  possessed 
in  superior  specimens  of  the  breed.  The  American  Saddle 
Horse  is  typified  by  five  characteristic  gaits,  namely :  the  walk, 
trot,  canter,  rack  and  the  running  walk,  fox  trot,  or  slow  pace. 

The  American  Saddle  Horse  Association  defines  the 
American  Saddle  Horse  from  the  show  ring  standpoint  in 
the  following:  The  saddle  horse  must  be  sound,  of  good 
conformation,  substance,  finish,  style,  and  shown  without 
artificial  appliances,  and  up  to  carrying  at  least  one  hundred 
and  sixty  (160)  pounds. 

The  three-gaited  horse  should  go  plain,  walk  briskly,  and 
with  speqd  equal  to  four  (4)  miles  an  hour;  canter  reasonably, 
high  and  gentle,  trot  steady,  straight,  and  true;  action  enough 
to  be  attractive;  well  balanced,  and  with  speed  equal  to 
twelve  (12)  miles  an  hour. 

Added  to  the  foregoing  the  five-gaited  horse  should  go 
running  walk,  fox  trot  or  slow  pace,  smoothly  and  equal 
to  six  (6)  miles  an  hour;  rack  easily  without  being  forced, 
with  speed  equal  to  twelve  (12)  miles  an  hour.  Must  stand 
quietly,  back  readily,  and  lead  with  either  foot  in  a  canter 
from  a  halt.  (Not  required  or  desired  to  change  lead  in 
action.) 

High  rate  of  speed  and  racing  is  forbidden. 


SADDLE  GROUP  OR  TYPE 


159 


High  school  gaits  are  not  saddle  gaits.  It  is  understood 
that  an  animal  which  has  been  educated  in  high  school  may 
inadvertently  show  a  step  or  two  in  this  school  when  changing 
gait.  Such  evidence  is  not  to  disqualify  a  horse,  though  it  is 
objectionable,  but  any  intentional  exhibition  of  high  school 
is  prohibited  and  shall  disqualify  an  entry. 

The  three-gaited  horse  should  show  the  three  distinct 
gaits:  walk,  trot,  and  canter. 


Fig.  59. — Thoroughbred  stalHon. 


Thoroughbred. — The  Thoroughbred  horse  is  derived  from 
the  amalgamation  of  the  Arabian  Barb  and  Turkish  Blood 
with  the  lighter  English-bred  horses.  From  this  union  has 
been  developed  a  breed  of  unusual  speed  and  endurance. 
The  acme  of  perfection  in  the  Thoroughbred  horse  is  the 
attainment  of  speed  at  the  run.  In  gaining  this  one  special 
attribute  the  type  is  often  unsymmetrical  or  at  least  not  as 
pleasing  in  its  lines  as  the  roadster  type  of  Standardbred  or 
the  American  Saddle  Horse.  The  breed  is  characterized 
by  an  energetic,  racy  temperament   or  nerve  force,  which 


160 


JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 


is  exemplified  in  the  extreme  speed  attained  by  specimens 
of  the  breed.  Although  unusually  refined  and  possessing 
striking  quality  characteristics,  the  Thoroughbred  is  rangy, 
with  a  long  body,  long  legs,  and  comparatively  long  neck. 
These  are  all  conducive  to  a  long  stride,  which  is  so  necessary 
in  the  running  horse.     The  best  representatives  of  the  breed 


Fig.  60. — Combination  horse. 


average  about  15-2  hands  high  and  range  from  900  to  1050 
pounds. 

The  color  is  bay,  chestnut,  brown,  black,  and  gray  with 
white  markings.  The  former  colors  are  the  most  character- 
istic, blacks  and  grays  not  being  in  demand.  Compared 
with  the  Standardbred  trotter  and  pacer,  the  Thoroughbred 
is  more  rangy,  having  more  sloping  pasterns,  finer  bone, 
sometimes  extreme  and  smaller  feet  of  unusually  fine  texture. 
The  withers  are  usually  high,  the  shoulders  are  ratherjong 


SADDLE  GROUP  OR  TYPE 


161 


and  sloping,  and  the  head  carried  forward  rather  thaiji 
upward.  The  hindquarters  are  long,  strongly  muscled,  and 
the  gaskins  broad,  with  a  strong  junction  at  the  hock. 
Because  of  the  special  purpose  for  which  the  Thoroughbred 
has  been  developed,  it  is  used  almost  solely  for  breeding  and 
racing  purposes  in  its  pure-bred  form,  the  temperament  being 


dr« 

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k 

r  1 

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A 

■gM; 

m 

tel'.vMi 

^^i^ 

.-^-i 

^^ 

^^ 

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.  ^B.-i*\ ,flf  ■  _■  .'i 

Fig.  61. — Walk-trot-canter  saddle  mare. 


too  nervous  and  erratic  for  general  use.  Pure  specimens  of 
the  breed  are  used  otherwise  for  crossing  to  obtain  various 
classes  of  horses,  such  as  the  walk-trot-canter,  hunter,  and 
cavalry  horse. 

Combination    Horse. — The    combination    horse    possesses 

both  saddle  and  light  harness  attainments.     However,  such 

animals  are  often  better  naturally  developed  or  trained  for 

one   purpose   than   the   other.     The   combination  horse   is 

11 


162 


JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 


more  representative  of  the  saddle  type,  but  is  customarily 
shown  in  harness  first.  It  should  possess  considerable 
smoothness,  style  and  finish,  although  these  attributes  are 
not  usually  attained  to  an  extreme.  The  combination  horse 
is  usually  distinguished  from  the  saddle  horse  by  possessing 
more  of  the  harness-form  attainments,  principally  in  the 


Fig.  62. — Gaited  saddle  stallion. 


speed  at  the  trot.  Combination  horses  which  possess, 
either  naturally  or  by  training,  an  equal  balance  in  harness 
and  saddle  requirements  possess  unusual  value,  both  from  the 
market  and  show  ring  standpoint. 

Walk-trot-canter  Horse. — The  walk-trot-canter  horse  re- 
ceives its  name  from  the  three  gaits  which  it  possesses. 
It  is  divided  into  two  types  which  are  derivatives  of  the 
American  or  Saddle-bred  and  the  English  or  Thoroughbred 


SADDLE  GROUP  OR  TYPE 


163 


horses.  The  American  or  Saddle-bred  type  is  a  complement 
to  the  gaited  saddle  horse,  except  that  it  is  trained  only 
to  go  the  three  gaits.  It  is  customary  also  to  dock  and  pull 
the  manes.  The  Thoroughbred  type  is  represented  in  the 
better  shaped  Thoroughbreds  which  possess  the  three  dis- 
tinctive gaits,  the  walk,  trot,  and  canter,  in  a  distinctive  form. 


i'lG.   tj.j. — i-ive-gaited  saddier. 


This  type  of  three-gaited  horse  is  usually  undocked  and  the 
mane  hogged. 

Gaited  Saddle  Horse. — The  gaited  saddle  horse  is  exem- 
plified in  the  five-gait  attainments,  namely:  the  walk,  trot, 
canter,  rack  and  running  walk,  fox  trot  or  slow  pace.  Many 
of  the  gaited  saddle  horses  are  of  pure-bred  saddle-horse 
origin,  although  those  of  grade  origin  ha^-ing  the  standard 
five-gait  requirements  are  so  classified. 


164 


JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 


Hunter  Horse. — The  hunter  horse,  as  the  name  suggests, 
should  possess  saddle  requirements,  capacity  and  endurance, 
for  carrying  weight  and  jumping  easily  and  safely.  He 
should  possess  a  good  disposition,  ample  quality,  and  refine- 
ment, and  a  strong,  lively,  nervous  temperament.  Intelligence 


Fig.  64. — Light-weight  hunter. 


is  important,  because  of  the  varied  attainments  which  such 
an  animal  must  possess.  Hunters  are  classified  as  light, 
medium,  and  heavy,  on  a  basis  of  the  weight  which  they 
are  capable  of  carrjdng  safely.  This  ranges  from  135  to 
190  pounds  or  over.  They  should  possess  capacity  for 
carrying  the  rider  safely  and  for  long,  continuous  cross- 
country runs  over  the  various  obstacles  which  are  usually 
encountered. 

Cavalry. — Cavalry  horses  are  used,  as  the  name  suggests, 
for  army  purposes.     While  many  of  them  are  range  bred 


SADDLE  GROUP  OR  TYPE 


165 


and  do  not  possess  a  desirable  conformation,  there  are  certain 
standard  qualifications  set  forth  by  the  Quartermaster- 
General  of  the  war  department.  Specimens  of  this  class 
should  be  geldings  of  good  color,  from  four  to  eight  years 
old,  stand  from  15  to  15-3  hands  high,  and  weigh  from  950 
to  1100  pounds.     They  should  be  sound,  good  in  quality, 


Fig.  65. — Hunter,  Irish  Hose. 

possess  a  docile  disposition,  be  well  broken  to  saddle,  have 
a  well-balanced  action,  and  be  free  from  blemish  or  other 
defects. 

Specifications  for  Cavalry  Horses,  Prepared  under  Direction 
OF  THE  Quartermaster-General. 

The  cavalry  horse  must  be  sound,  well  bred,  of  a  superior  class, 
and  have  quahty;  gentle  and  of  a  kind  disposition;  thoroughly  broken 
to  the  saddle,  with  Hght  and  elastic  mouth,  easy  gaits,  and  free  and 
prompt  action  at  the  walk,  trot,  and  gallop;  free  from  vicious  habits, 
without  material  blemish  or  defect;  and  otherwise  to  conform  to  the 
following  description: 

A  gelding  of  uniform  and  hardy  color,  in  good  condition;  from  four 
to  eight  years  old;  weighing  from  950  to  1100  pounds,  depending  on 
height,  which  should  be  from  15  to  15-3  hands. 


166 


JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 


Head. — Small  and  well  set  on  neck;  with  ears  small,  thin,  neat  and 
erect;  forehead  broad  and  full;  eyes  large,  prominent,  and  mild,  with 
well-developed  brow  and  fine  eyelid;  vision  perfect  in  every  respect; 
muzzle  small  and  fine;  mouth  deep;  lips  thin  and  firmly  compressed; 
nostrils  large  and  fine,  and  branches  of  underjaw  (adjoining  neck) 
wide  apart. 

Neck. — ^Light,  moderately  long,  and  tapering  toward  the  head,  with 
crest  firm  and  longer  than  underside;  mane  fine  and  intact. 

Withers. — Elevated,  not  unduly  fine,  well  developed  and  muscled. 

Shoulders. — ^Long,  oblique,  and  well  muscled. 

Chest. — Full,  very  deep,  moderately  broad,  and  plump  in  front. 


Fig.   66. — High  jumper. 


Forelegs. — Vertical,   and   properly   placed;   with   elbow  large,   long, 

Erominent,  and  clear  of  chest;  forearm  large  at  the  elbow,  long  and 
eavily  muscled. 

Knees. — Neatly  outlined,  large,  prominent,  wide  in  front,  well 
situated,  and  well  directed. 

Back. — Short,   straight,   and  well   muscled. 

Loins. — Broad,  straight,  veiy  short,  and  muscular. 

Barrel. — Large,  increasing  in  size  toward  the  flanks,  with  ribs  well 
arched    and    definitely    separated. 

Hindquarters. — Wide,  thick,  very  long,  full,  heavily  muscled,  rounded 
externally,  and  well  directed. 

Tail. — Fine  and  intact,  well  carried  and  firm. 


SADDLE  GROUP  OR  TYPE 


167 


Hocks. — Neatly  outlined,  lean,  large,  wide  from  front  to  rear,  well 
situated,  and  well  directed. 

Limbs. — From  knees  and  hocks  downward  vertical,  short,  wide 
laterally,  with  tendons  and  hgaments  standing  well  out  from  bone 
and  distinctly  defined. 

Pasterns. — Strong  medium  length,  not  too  oblique,  and  well  directed. 

Feet. — Medium  size,  circular  in  shape,  sound;  with  horn  dark,  smooth, 
and  of  fine  texture;  sole  moderately  concave,  and  frog  well  developed, 
sound,  firm,  large,  elastic,  and  healthy. 

Each  horse  will  be  subjected  to  a  rigid  inspection,  and  any  animal 
that  does  not  meet  the  above  requirements  should  be  rejected. 


Fig.  67. — L'avaliy  remount. 


Running  Horse. — The  race  horse  is  exemplified  by  the 
extreme  speed  whicli  it  is  able  to  obtain  at  its  natural 
gait,  which  is  the  gallop.  It  should  have  long  reach 
and  unusual  stamina  and  endurance.  The  race  type  is  an 
exponent  of  the  Thoroughbred  formerly  described,  gaining 
prominence  either  in  the  pure-bred  or  grade  form.  The 
attributes  and  attainments  specified  under  the  Thorough- 


168  JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 

bred  are  the  same  as  those  expected  in  the  race-horse  class. 
Speed  at  the  run  is  the  one  requirement  which  is  either  in 
the  straight  running  race  or  the  steeplechase  course. 

Score  Card  for  Saddle  Horses. 

Perfect  score. 

General  Appearance — -12  Points. 
Height: 
Weight: 

Form:  close  but  not  full  made,  deep  but  not  broad,  symmet- 
rical              4 

Quality:  bone  clean,  dense,  fine,  yet  indicating  substance, 
tendons  and  joints  sharply  defined,   hide  and  hair  fine, 

general  refinement,  finish 4 

TemTperament:  active,  disposition  good,  intelligent       ...         4 
Head  and  Neck — 8  Points. 

Head:  size  and  dimensions  in  proportion,  clear-cut  features, 

straight  face  line,  wide  angle  in  lower  jaw 1 

Forehead:  broad,  full 1 

Eyes:  prominent  orbit,  large,  full,  bright,  clear,  lid  thin,  even 

curvature       1 

Ears:  medium  size,  pointed,  set  close,  carried  alert     ...         1 
Muzzle:  fine,  nostrils  large,  lips  thin,  trim,  even     ....  1 

Neck:  long,  supple,  well  crested,  not  carried  too  high,  throttle 

well  cut  out,  head  well  set  on 3 

Forehand — 22  Points. 

Shoulders:  very  long,  sloping  yet  muscular 3 

Arms:  short,  muscular,  carried  well  forward 1 

Forearms:  long,  broad,  muscular 1 

Knees:  straight,  wide,  deep,  strongly  supported     ....         2 
Canons:  short,  broad,  flat,  tendons  sharply  defined,  set  well 

back 2 

Fetlocks:  wide,  tendons  well  back,  straight,  well  supported    .         2 
Pasterns:  long,  oblique  (45  degrees),  smooth,  strong  ...         2 
Feet:  large,  round,  uniform,  straight,  slope  of  wall  parallel 
to  slope  of  pastern,  sole  concave,  bars  strong,  frog  large, 
elastic,  heels  wide,  full,  one-third  height  of  toe,  horn  dense, 

smooth,  dark  color 5 

Legs:  direction  viewed  from  in  front,  perpendicular  line 
dropped  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  should  divide  the  leg 
and  foot  into  two  lateral  halves ;  viewed  from  the  side,  a  per- 
pendicular line  dropped  from  the  tuberosity  of  the  scapula 
should  pass  through  the  center  of  the  elbow-joint  and  meet 

the  ground  at  the  center  of  the  foot 4 

Body — 12  Points. 

Withers:  high,  muscular,  well  finished  at  top,  extending  well 

into  back 3 

Chest:  medium  width,  deep .      .         2 

Ribs:  well  sprung,  long,  close 2 

Back:  short,  straight,  strong,  broad        ....  .      .         2 

Loin:  short,  broad,  muscular,  strongly  coupled      ....         2 

Flank:  deep,  full,  long,  low  underline 1 

Carried  forward 54 


PONY  GROUP  OR  TYPE  169 

Perfect  score. 

Brought  forward 54 

Hindquarters — 31  Points. 

Hips:  broad,  round,  smooth 2 

Croup:  long,  level,  round,  smooth 2 

Tail:  set  high,  well  carried 2 

Thighs:  fuU,  muscular 2 

Stifles:  broad,  fuU,  muscular 2 

Gaskins:  broad,  muscular 2 

Hocks:  straight,    wide,    point   prominent,    deep,    clean    cut, 

smooth,  well  supported 5 

Canons:  short,  broad,  fiat,  tendons  sharply  defined,  set  well 

back 2 

Fetlocks:  wide,  tendons  well  back,  straight,  well  supported  2 

Pasterns:  long,  oblique  (50  degrees),  smooth,  strong   ...         2 

Feet:  large,    round    (slightly   less   than   in   front),    uniform, 

straight,  slope  of   wall  parallel  to  slope  of   pastern,  sole 

concave,  bars  strong,  frog  large  and  elastic,  heels  wide, 

full,   one-third  height  of  toe,   horn  dense,   smooth,   dark 

color 4 

Legs:  direction,  viewed  from  the  rear  a  perpendicular  line 
dropped  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  divide  the 
leg  and  foot  into  lateral  halves;  viewed  from  the  side  this 
same  line  should  touch  the  point  of  the  hock  and  meet 
the  ground  some  little  distance  back  of  the  heel.  A  per- 
pendicular line  dropped  from    the  hip-joint  should  meet 

the  ground  near  the  center  of  the  foot 4 

Action — 15  Points. 

Walk:  rapid,  flat-footed,  in  line 5 

Trot:  free,  springy,  square,  going  well  off  hocks,  not  extreme 

knee  fold 5 

Canter:  slow,  collected,  either  lead,  no  cross  canter     ...         5 

Total 100 


PONY  GROUP  OR  TYPE. 

The  pony  group  or  type  is  exemplified  in  the  Shetland, 
Welsh,  and  Hackney,  from  the  pure-bred  standpoint,  the 
latter  being  an  undersized  Hackney  formerly  described  under 
the  heavy  harness  group.  From  the  standpoint  of  class 
attainments  the  type  is  represented  by  the  Polo  Pony, 
Shetland  (under  46  inches),  and  the  11-2  to  14-2  hand  pony. 

Shetland. — The  Shetland  pony  in  all  respects  possesses 
the  type  and  conformation  of  a  small  draft  horse.  The 
Shetland  is  the  smallest  of  the  breeds  of  horses.  The 
American  Shetland  Pony  Club  requires  that  specimens  of 
the  breed  come  under  46  inches  in  order  to  be  eligible  for 


170 


JUDGING  LIGHT  HOUSES 


registration.  The  breed  is  a  native  of  the  Shetland  Islands 
where  they  are  used  frequently  to  carry  rather  heavy  loads. 
They  are  used  in  this  country  largely  for  pleasure  purposes, 
chiefly  among  children.  The  Shetland  is  docile,  rather 
lymphatic  in  temperament,  although  occasionally  ill  natured. 


Shetland  stallion. 


The  colors  vary  considerably,  browns,  blacks,  bays,  chestnuts, 
and  often  odd  and  irregular  colors  characterize  the  breed. 
The  solid  colors  are  most  preferable  among  the  breeders, 
although  broken-colored  ponies  find  ready  sale,  chiefly  for 
the  use  of  children.  Action  is  not  well  developed  as  a 
usual  thing.  The  American  type  of  pony  is  less  blocky  and 
more  refined  than  the  type  accepted  in  its  native  home. 


PONY  GROUP  OR  TYPE 


171 


Score  Card  for  Shetland  Ponies. 

Perfect  score. 

Constitution:  Constitution  indicated  by  general  healthy  appear- 
ance, perfect  respiration,  brightness  of  eye 10 

•Si.ee;  Ponies  over  four  years  old,  42  inches  and  under  in  height, 
two  points  to  be  deducted  for  every  inch  over  42  inches  up  to  46 
inches,  fractional  portions  to  count  as  full  inches 25 

Head:  Head  symmetrical,  rather  small  and  fine,  wide  between 
eyes,  ears  short  and  erect 10 

Body:  Barrel  well  rounded,  back  short  and  level,  deep  chest,  good 
breast,  compact  "pony  build" 10 

Legs:     Legs  muscular,  flat-boned,  hindleg  not  cow-hocked  or  too     25 
crooked  

Mane  and  Tail:     Foretop,  mane  and  tail  heavy 10 

Feet:     Good " 10 

Total        .      .      .     • 100 


Fig.  69. — Welsh  staUion. 


Welsh  Ponies. — Welsh  ponies  are  descended  from  ponies 
which  are  native  of  the  Welsh  mountains  in  Wales.  The 
type  is  quite  variable,  specimens  of  the  breed  having  been 


172 


JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 


improved  by  the  use  of  Arab  and  Thoroughbred  blood. 
The  Welsh  Pony  and  Cob  Society  divides  the  breed  into  four 
types.  The  first  consideration  is  height,  including  specimens 
ranging  12-2  hands  or  under,  12-2  to  13-2  hands,  13-2  to  14-2 
hands,  and  14-2  to  15-2  hands.  The  first  type  resembles 
a  small  Arabian  horse,  the  second  being  more  of  the  cob  type, 


Fig.  70. — Hackney  pony  stallion. 


while  the  third  comes  in  the  cob  class.  Those  conforming  to 
the  latter  height  are  suited  to  infantry  and  cavalry  service. 
Welsh  ponies  possess  more  style  and  action  than  the  Shet- 
land, the  larger,  better  developed  specimens  making  good 
saddle  or  harness  horses.  The  color  ranges  quite  widely, 
bays,  browns,  chestnuts,  grays,  and  roans  characterizing  the 
breed.  Many  of  these  ponies  have  good  hock  and  knee  action 
and  unusual  speed  and  stamina  for  a  pony.  However,  there 
are  very  many  ill-developed  specimens,  little  care  and  atten- 


PONY  GROUP  OR  TYPE 


173 


tion  having  been  given  to  their  breeding,  especially  under 
native  conditions. 

Hackney. — The  Hackney  pony  is  merely  an  undersized 
Hackney  horse  conforming  to  pony  requirements  with  a 
maximum  height  of  58  inches  or  14-2  hands.  All  of  the  breed 
qualities,  as  formerly  described,  should  be  exhibited  in  the 
Hackney  pony. 


Fig.  71. — Polo  pony. 


Class  Characteristics.  —  The  principal  characteristics  of 
ponies  are  described  under  the  following: 

Polo  Ponies. — The  Polo  pony,  although  referred  to  some- 
time as  a  breed,  does  not  possess  true  breed  qualifications. 
The  maximum  height  allowed  by  the  American  Polo  Pony 
Association  is  14-2  hands.  The  Polo  pony  may  be  a  deriva- 
tive of  small  Thoroughbreds,  western  ponies,  or  half-breds. 
They  are  of  a  hunter  type,  must  possess  a  good  disposition, 
a  lively  temperament,  good  quality  and  endurance  in  order 


174 


JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 


to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  game.  Endurance  and 
intelhgence  are  associated  qualities  which  are  very  important 
in  the  most  typical  representatives  of  the  class. 


Fig.  72. — Pony  turnout. 


Fig.  73. — Thirteen-hand  Hackney  ponies. 

Ponies,  46  Inches  or  Under. — Ponies  conforming  to  this 
requirement  are  largely  Shetland  and  Welsh  ponies  and 
their  derivatives.  All  of  the  individual  requirements  for- 
merly described  under  Shetland  and  Welsh  ponies  should 
characterize  the  class, 


JUDGING  BREEDING  CLASSES  175 

Ponies  between  11-2  Hands  and  14-2  Hands. — This  is  a  class 
of  ponies  of  heavy  harness  or  saddle-horse  breeding  with 
miniature  size.  They  are  used  principally  for  children  for 
purposes  where  the  Shetland  and  Welsh  do  not  conform  well 
to  the  requirements.  Good  solid  colors  are  most  desirable, 
having  in  this  respect  more  of  the  qualifications  of  the  mature 
horse  and  less  of  the  Shetland  pony  color  attributes. 

JUDGING  BREEDING  CLASSES.^ 

In  judging  breeding  classes,  there  are  certain  factors  of 
special  significance  not  considered  under  the  requisites  of 
draft  and  light-horse  attributes.  These  problems  involve 
conformation,  temperament,  sex  characteristics,  and  the 
factors  of  special  significance  in  judging  young  stock. 

Breeding  Attributes. — The  judging  of  horses  for  breeding 
purposes  is  not  radically  different  from  judging  such  animals 
from  a  strictly  draft  or  light-horse  standpoint,  barring 
reproductive  characteristics.  The  principal  factors  to  con- 
sider, aside  from  those  already  discussed,  are  health  fulness, 
constitution,  and  breeding  conformation.  Temperament  is 
important.  Special  emphasis  should  always  be  given  to 
the  healthfulness,  constitution,  and  form  in  judging  breeding 
classes.  The  type  of  animal  which  will  make  a  durable  and 
otherwise  satisfactory  draft  or  light  horse  will  not  always 
be  a  satisfactory  breeder.  The  draft  horse  proper  should 
be  compact  in  form,  short,  and  closely  coupled.  Such  an 
animal  would  not  of  necessity  make  a  strong,  vigorous 
breeder,  although  these  characteristics  are  all  important. 
Capacity  should  be  closely  associated  with  these  points. 

The  breeding  animal  should  be  long  in  the  body,  deep, 
broad  and  roomy.  While  compactness  or  fulness  of  form  is 
highly  desirable,  this  should  not  be  obtained  at  the  expense  of 
breeding  capacity.  Breeding  requisites  are  in  all  essential 
factors  the  same  as  draft  form.  It  is  of  special  importance, 
however,  that  the  larger,  more  capacious  form  be  associated 
with  a  strong  constitution,  and  a  large,  strong,  fine-qualitied 

'  Applicable  to  draft  and  light  horses. 


176  JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 

bone.  These  two  factors  should  be  closely  associated,  as  the 
future  and  continuous  usefulness  of  the  breeding  animal  are 
of  primary  importance.  Quality  and  constitution  or  vigor 
should,  therefore,  be  given  special  attention. 

Quality. — The  significance  of  quality  and  its  influence 
on  the  individual  is  only  a  mere  part  of  its  manifestation  as 
compared  to  its  relation  to  the  breeding  animal.  This  is 
especially  true  in  the  horse  where  enduring  qualities  in  a 
large  measure  determine  the  value  in  its  special  field  of  work 
and  reproduction.  The  horse,  above  all  animals  is  expected 
to  show,  along  with  other  necessary  attributes,  an  extreme 
degree  of  quality  and  general  refinement.  The  degree  of 
manifestation  of  necessity  varies,  depending  upon  the  type 
of  the  animal  and  its  specialized  use.  However,  in  the  horse, 
quality  above  all  considerations  should  be  plainly  in  evidence. 
The  work  of  the  horse  is  based  on  some  form  of  locomotion. 
No  matter  what  the  particular  phase  of  use  may  be,  quality 
is  necessary,  with  other  attributes,  to  endow  the  animal 
with  the  maximum  amount  of  durability.  While  the  attain- 
ment of  this  particular  attribute  should  not  overshadow 
either  scale  or  substance,  it  must  stand  out  boldly,  yet  be 
properly  associated  with  the  other  elements  of  the  mechanism. 
A  thick,  meaty,  spongy-boned  horse  is  not  only  objectionable 
in  the  individual,  but  the  transmission  of  such  characteristics 
to  the  offspring  is  doubly  so.  An  animal  so  characterized 
can  neither  be  a  satisfactory  breeder  nor  supply  stock  suitable 
for  breeding,  market,  or  show  ring  demands. 

Conformation. — The  conformation  in  the  male  and  female 
vary  to  a  noticeable  degree.  While  on  the  whole  the  general 
form  is  just  the  same,  there  are  certain  characteristics  which 
endow  the  male  and  female,  respectively,  with  masculine  and 
feminine  attributes  upon  which  the  reproduction  of  highly 
developed  individuals  depend.  The  stallion  should  be  bold 
and  fearless  in  appearance,  strong  in  the  crest  and  through 
the  shoulders  and  chest,  yet  not  to  the  extent  of  rendering 
the  individual  unsymmetrical  from  any  viewpoint.  It 
should  be  characterized  with  all  attainments  significant  of 
prepotency  signifying  the  regular  transmission  of  individually 
possessed  qualities  to  the  offspring. 


JUDGING  BREEDING  CLASSES  177 

The  female  should  likewise  possess  the  qualities  indicative 
of  strongly  endowed  maternal  functions.  The  head  and 
neck  should  be  lighter  and  more  feminine  in  appearance  than 
in  the  male.  The  shoulders  should  be  lighter  and  more 
harmoniously  developed  with  the  other  body  regions.  As 
with  all  breeding  animals,  the  body  and  hindquarters  should 
be  more  strongly  developed  than  the  head,  neck,  and 
forehand.  In  the  stallion  this  is  exhibited  in  the  heavier, 
coarser  head,  larger,  thicker  neck,  heavier  crest,  shoulders, 
and  chest.  In  contradistinction,  the  mare  is  less  prominent 
in  the  development  through  this  region  and  comparatively 
more  so  in  the  body  and  hindquarters.  On  the  whole,  the 
stallion  should  be  more  compact  or  close  knit,  this  depend- 
ing on  the  type,  the  mare  having  a  more  open  conforma- 
tion, which  is  a  natural  phenomenon  in  all  well-developed 
breeding  females. 

Temperament. — The  temperament  of  individual  animals 
varies  greatly.  However,  it  is  necessary  that  breeding 
animals  have  a  uniform,  active  temperament  characteristic 
of  the  various  types  to  which  they  belong.  Horses,  espe- 
cially, should  have  an  even,  uniform  temperament  and  a 
lively,  docile  disposition.  Usually  the  high-strung,  easily 
excited  animal  is  lacking  in  nerve  force  or  capacity.  This  is 
detrimental  to  a  breeding  animal,  as  it  not  only  detracts 
from  the  value  of  the  individual  but  such  characteristics 
are  usually  transmitted  to  the  offspring  in  a  like  or  greater 
degree. 

Compared  with  the  light  horse,  the  draft  horse  is  naturally 
somewhat  more  lymphatic  in  temperament.  A  light  horse, 
which  performs  its  work  at  a  light  vehicle,  is  supposed  to 
show  more  life,  or  spirit,  than  the  heavier  tj^pe  of  animal. 
The  temperament  of  any  animal  should  be  keen  and  active, 
yet  it  should  not  be  unduly  emphasized  at  the  expense  of 
the  usefulness  or  purpose  for  which  an  animal  is  bred.  The 
draft  horse  should  show  all  desirable  temperamental  charac- 
teristics, yet  in  a  modified  degree  as  compared  with  the  light 
horse.  The  draft  animal  which  exhibits  the  same  traits  as 
a  Standardbred  or  Thoroughbred  would  not  be  considered  as 
thoroughly  conforming  to  draft-horse  characteristics.  There 
12 


178 


JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 


should  be  an  exhibition  of  temperament,  however,  in  con- 
formity with  type  characteristics. 

Sex  Characteristics. — The  primary  differences  between 
the  stallion  and  the  mare  are  those  which  relate  to  size, 
proportion,  compactness,  and  sex  characteristics.  The 
stallion  should  be  thoroughly  masculine  without  any  indica- 
tions of  femininity  in  the  form,  structure,  or  otherwise. 
The  head  should  be  large  and  while  characterized  by  quality 


Fig.  74. — Percheron  stallion,  showing  the  desired  masculine  qualities. 


and  clearness  of  outline,  it  should  show  without  question 
the  masculine  characteristics.  The  neck  should  be  long, 
broad,  deep,  and  heavily  muscled.  The  crest  should  also  be 
well  developed,  any  lack  of  development  indicating  weak 
constitution  and  a  lack  of  prepotency.  The  body  should 
portray  every  factor  which  characterizes  a  strong,  vigorous 
individual.  It  should  be  in  conformity  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  head,  neck,  and  all  other  parts.     The  animal 


JUDGING  BREEDING  CLASSES 


179 


should  show  a  large,  strong  bone,  deep  muscling,  and  a 
compact,  massive  form  throughout.  The  hindquarters  should 
likewise  be  long,  deep,  and  prominently  developed.  The 
first  impression  of  the  stallion  should  be  that  of  boldness 
and  strength,  combined  with  symmetry  of  form,  quality, 
constitution,  and  prepotency. 

The  major  difference  between  the  stallion  and  the  mare  is 
the  size  and  the  characteristics  which  relate  to  sex  differences. 


Fig.  75. — Percheron  brood  mare,  showing  femininity  and  breeding  capacity. 

The  form  of  the  mare  should  in  general  be  the  same  as  that 
of  the  stallion,  differing  in  the  fineness  of  the  features  and 
the  feminine  qualities  exhibited.  While  the  mare  should 
be  strongly  muscled,  there  should  not  be  the  same  degree  of 
massiveness  as  found  in  the  stallion.  The  head  should 
be  large,  broad,  clear  cut  in  outline,  and  have  the  feminine 
characteristics  clearly  portrayed.  The  neck  should  be 
relatively  longer  than  in  the  stallion,  while  there  should  not 


180  JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 

be  any  undue  indication  of  crest  development.  The  body 
proper  should  be  long,  capacious,  and  deeply  muscled,  as 
such  characteristics  are  indicative  of  maternal  qualities. 
The  bone  should  be  large,  clean  and  fine,  yet  the  same 
degree  of  compactness  should  not  be  exhibited  as  in  the 
stallion.  Otherwise,  the  characteristics  of  the  male  and 
female  are  the  same.  The  draft  characteristics  should  be 
clearly  in  evidence  in  both  male  and  female. 


Fig.  76. — Young  colts  with  an  outcome.    Indicated  in  the  large  bone,  open, 
growthy  frame,  and  general  breedy  appearance. 


Colts  and  Fillies. — In  judging  colts  and  fillies  there  is 
always  a  certain  amount  of  outcome  or  development  which 
must  be  taken  into  consideration.  While  all  animals  must 
be  judged  in  the  show  ring  according  to  their  immediate 
condition,  yet  in  selecting  for  future  breeding  purposes, 
the  final  outcome  must  be  given  consideration.     Usually 


JUDGING  BREEDING  CLASSES  181 

the  large,  strong-boiied  colt  or  filly  does  not  make  the  most 
attractive  appearance,  yet  such  animals  seldom  fail  to  grow 
into  the  most  valuable  matured  specimens.  The  sleek- 
bodied  animal  presenting  the  round,  smooth,  plump  form 
is  likely  to  catch  the  eye  of  the  uninitiated,  yet  an  animal 
of  this  type  will  rarely  grow  into  a  large,  capacious  breeder, 
or  a  strong,  vigorous,  market  animal. 

If  the  fundamental  principles  of  animal  development  have 
been  completely  mastered,  it  will  have  been  learned  that  the 
animal  makes  growth  and  development  on  the  bony  frame- 
work available  for  this  purpose.  If  there  is  not  sufficient 
surface  for  the  animal  to  expand  or  grow  it  cannot  possibly 
develop  into  a  large,  useful  animal.  The  young  animal 
which  is  characterized  by  a  large  framework  possessing 
quality  and  other  requisites  will  develop  to  the  maximum 
degree  of  efficiency.  It  is  impossible  for  the  small-boned 
colt  or  filly  to  make  development  in  a  normal  manner. 
It  is  the  universal  law  of  growth  that  the  size  or  weight 
attained  is  dependent  on  the  development  of  the  bone  and 
the  amount  of  surface  exposed  for  the  reception  of  the 
muscles  and  other  elements  entering  into  the  animal  form 
or  make-up. 


CHAPTER   IX. 
JUDGING  JACKS,  JENNETS,  AND  MULES. 

JACKS  AND  JENNETS. 

Structure. — The  general  structure  of  the  domestic  ass  is 
very  much  Hke  the  horse,  although  there  are  some  features 
quite  different.  The  essential  differences  are  the  lack  of 
symmetry,  quality,  and  finish.  Otherwise,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  the  qualifications  are  the  same  and  the  method 
of  judging  is  identical.  The  head  of  the  ass  is  usually  large 
and  often  not  well  proportioned  with  the  other  parts  of  the 
body.  The  ears  are  large,  long,  and  somewhat  coarse.  The 
neck  is  medium  in  length,  deep,  and  does  not  usually  possess 
a  crest. 

The  body  is  moderately  compact,  deep,  and  reasonably 
smooth  in  outline.  The  ass,  as  a  whole,  does  not  possess 
the  massiveness  of  the  draft  type  of  horse.  Comparing  it 
with  the  horse,  it  is  narrower  and  lighter  in  the  body,  and 
especially  lacking  in  the  hindquarters,  which  are  inclined 
to  be  short  and  not  well  muscled.  The  hair  is  longer  than  in 
the  horse,  somewhat  coarser,  and  the  mane  and  tail  possess 
an  unusually  scanty  supply. 

The  legs  usually  show  strong  bone,  but  the  joints  are 
quite  frequently  large  and  coarse.  The  feet  are  smaller 
and  narrower  than  in  the  horse,  both  the  legs  and  feet 
being  less  subject  to  unsoundness  than  in  the  latter  animal. 
There  are  no  callosities  on  the  hindlegs  of  the  ass.  The  age 
is  determined  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  horse. 

General  Appearance. — In  general  appearance,  the  ass  does 
not  possess  the  pleasing  lines,  the  rotundity  or  symmetry 
of  form  or  the  massiveness  of  the  horse.  These  are  char- 
acteristics which  are  deeply  fixed,  however,  and  therefore 
(182) 


JACKS  AND  JENNETS  183 

cannot  be  criticised  absolutely.  Considered  from  the  utility 
standpoint,  the  general  form  and  appearance  of  the  ass  is 
subject  to  much  less  criticism  than  when  compared  with 
the  horse.  Beauty  and  appearance  are  exemplified  largely 
by  the  type  of  animal  under  consideration. 

Form  Scale  and  Quality.  —  Criticisms  of  the  ass,  other 
than  the  general  differences  ascribed  in  comparison  with 
the  horse,  are  the  lack  of  shape,  definition,  and  finely  drawn 
features.  The  shoulders  are  not  as  sloping,  the  ribs  usually 
not  as  well  sprung,  the  hindquarters  not  as  well  developed 
or  muscled,  and  there  is  not  as  much  definition,  quality,  or 
refinement  in  the  bones  and  joints.  There  is  a  general  lack 
of  smoothness  and  coordination  of  parts,  although  this  is 
usually  more  apparent  in  the  head,  neck,  and  hind- 
quarters. 

The  height  and  weight  of  the  ass  varies  considerably, 
this  depending  on  the  breed  and  condition  of  the  animal. 
In  the  more  approved  t^'pes,  the  height  approximates  16 
hands.  In  selecting  a  jack  for  breeding,  consideration 
should  be  given  to  the  mating  which  is  to  be  made.  If  the 
jack  is  selected  for  mating  with  a  mare,  the  height  is  not  as 
important  as  when  selected  for  mating  with  a  jennet.  A 
larger,  rangier  animal  and  one  with  more  height  is  desirable 
for  this  purpose.  The  weight  of  necessity  is  determined 
largely  by  the  height  and  type  of  the  animal,  the  weight 
ranging  from  900  to  1100  pounds  in  the  better  bred  and  more 
desirable  types  of  the  approved  breeds. 

The  quality  of  the  ass  is  determined  in  identically  the 
same  manner  as  in  the  horse,  although  there  may  be  quite 
varying  differences  in  the  coordination  of  the  structural 
development  of  the  animal.  In  the  horse  lack  of  quality 
is  usually  general,  while  in  the  ass  it  is  more  frequently  the 
result  of  a  lack  of  coordination  in  structure,  although  it  may 
be  generally  faulty,  the  same  as  in  the  horse. 

Soundness  and  Condition. — The  ass  and  the  mule  are  pro- 
verbially less  subject  to  unsoundness  than  the  horse.  This 
is  due  largely  to  the  structure,  especially  of  the  feet  and  the 
use  to  which  the  animals  are  subjected.  Condition  is  largely 
determined  by  the  care  and  management  given  these  animals. 


184         JUDGING  JACKS,  JENNETS,  AND  MULES 

Careless  treatment  usually  develops  a  very  objectionable 
condition  in  form,  appearance,  and  the  prevailing  jack 
sores. 

Color.- — The  several  breeds  of  jacks  have  characteristic 
colors,  the  same  as  in  the  distinct  breeds  of  horses.  The 
jacks  most  in  demand,  however,  are  those  possessing  black 
or  dark  brown  bodies  with  white  or  light  points.  Gray 
jacks  are  not  desirable  either  for  jennet  or  mule  breeding. 
The  darker  colors,  because  of  their  more  stable  qualities 
under  all  conditions  of  crossing  and  market  adaptability, 
are  in  much  greater  demand  than  any  other.  Broken  colors, 
stars,  or  white  stockings  are  rare  in  jacks,  jennets,  and  mules. 

Style  and  Action. — While  these  qualities  are  not  usually 
considered  important  requisites  in  judging  and  selecting 
jacks  and  jennets,  they  are  deserving  of  consideration,  since 
the  hereditary  tendencies  vitally  affect  the  mule,  which  is 
the  standard  market  animal  obtained  from  crossing  the  jack 
and  the  mare.  Considered  from  this  standpoint  these  char- 
acteristics should  be  given  the  same  consideration  as  in 
judging  the  horse.  The  standard  of  excellence  should  be 
clearly  in  mind,  and  judgment  passed  the  same  as  in  the 
horse,  except  that  the  degree  of  attainment  of  style  and 
action  will  not  be  as  noticeable. 

Nervous  Development.^ — The  horse  and  the  ass  represent 
the  extreme  in  nervous  development.  The  comparison  is 
largely  identical  with  the  one  used  in  describing  the  differ- 
ence in  the  temperament  of  beef  and  dairy  animals.  The 
horse  is  naturally  high  spirited,  although  the  degree  differs 
materially,  depending  on  the  type  or  breed  in  question. 
Compared  with  the  more  nervous  temperament  of  the  horse, 
that  of  the  ass  would  be  classed  as  lymphatic.  In  actual 
use  both  the  ass  and  the  mule  are  very  docile,  being  less 
subject  to  extremes  in  temperament  than  the  horse. 

Sex  Characteristics. — The  principal  differences  to  be  ob- 
served in  judging  the  jack  and  jennet  are  in  the  sex  char- 
acteristics. The  jack  should  have  greater  scale  and  should 
be  thoroughly  masculine  in  appearance.  The  jack  should 
have  a  well-developed  body,  thus  indicating  strength,  vitality, 
and  other  evidences  of  strong  reproductive  power.  The  jennet 


JACKS  AXD  JENNETS  185 

should  be  strongly  developed  in  the  region  of  the  reproduc- 
tive organs  and  be  thoroughly  feminine  in  appearance. 
Breeding  qualifications  are  fundamentally  the  same  as  in 
judging  the  mare,  other  than  the  normal  peculiarities 
involved. 

Uses. — Jacks  and  jennets,  from  a  commercial  viewpoint, 
are  used  entirely  for  breeding  purposes.  The  ultimate 
object  is  the  perpetuation  of  the  male  for  the  production  of 
mules,  which  are  rapidly  increasing  in  importance.  The 
judging  of  jacks  and  jennets  should  be  considered  on  a  basis 
of  their  adaptability  for  breeding  high-class  mules.  The 
opposite  cross  made  by  mating  the  stallion  with  the  jennet, 
which  produces  the  hinney,  is  not  of  great  importance.  Be- 
cause of  this  peculiar  adaptability  of  the  jack  in  mule  pro- 
duction greater  attention  should  be  given  to  the  outcome 
of  the  cross,  when  judging  the  jack,  than  otherwise.  This 
emphasizes  the  importance  of  having  a  definite  knowledge 
of  the  results  which  will  be  obtained  when  a  jack  of  a  certain 
type  is  crossed  on  mares  of  different  types.  Judging  jacks 
and  jennets  therefore  brings  in  greater  speculation  than  when 
judging  other  classes  of  breeding  animals.  Their  commercial 
value  for  this  reason  depends  almost  entirely  on  their  heredi- 
tary qualities.  Their  value  in  the  judging  ring  is  not,  there- 
fore, determined  on  their  conformation  absolutely  but  on  the 
probable  "nick"  or  blend  which  will  be  made  on  the  females 
to  which  they  are  bred  for  mule  production. 

Selection. — In  selecting  a  jack  consideration  should  be 
given  to  the  environment  to  which  the  animal  has  been 
subjected.  Jacks  which  have  been  reared  with  jennets 
do  not  cross  successfully  on  mares  for  mule  production. 
This  is  a  trait  peculiar  to  the  hybrid  cross  and,  consequently, 
a  factor  of  special  significance  in  purchasing  a  jack.  Jacks 
which  prove  to  be  the  most  successful  for  mule  breeding 
are  those  which  have  been  reared  in  company  with  horse 
colts,  young  mares,  or  fillies,  therefore  jacks  should  be 
purchased  from  farms  where  such  environment  has  been 
provided. 


186         JUDGING  JACKS,  JENNETS,  AND  MULES 
Score  Card  for  Jacks. 

Perfect  score. 

General  Appearance — 20  Points. 

Height:  (score  according  to  age) 4 

Weight:  (score  according  to  age) 4 

Form:  broad,  symmetrical,  well  proportioned,  smooth      .      .  4 

Quality:  bone  large,  strong,  clean;  hair  fine,  glossy      ...  4 

Temperament:  active,  disposition  agreeable 4 

Head  and  Neck — ^10  Points. 

Head:  well  proportioned,  bone  large;  profile  of  nose  straight 

or  slightly  Roman 4 

Muzzle:  neat;  nostrils  large;  lips  thin,  firm 1 

Eyes:  full,  clear,  intelligent,  prominent 1 

Forehead:  broad,  full 1 

Ears:  long,  pointed,  well  set,  alert  (33  inches  or  over,  from  tip 

to  tip,  preferred  for  aged  jack) 1 

Neck:  long,  muscled,  throat-latch  heavy,  windpipe  large        .  2 

Forehand — 23  Points. 

Shoulders:  sloping,  smooth 2 

Arm:  short,  well  muscled,  correctly  set 2 

Forearm:  long,  clean,  heavily  muscled 2 

Knees:  very  wide,  deep,  strong,  clean 2 

Canons:  wide,  clean,  tendons  defined,  fluted  bone       ...  2 

Fetlocks:  wide,  straight,  clean 1 

Pasterns:  sloping,  clean,  strong 4 

Feet:  large,  deep,  wide,  dense  and  lively  horn 8 

Body — 12  Points. 

Chest:  deep,  wide,  girth  large 2 

Ribs:  deep,  well  sprung,  closely  ribbed  to  hip 4 

Back:  straight,  long,  muscular 2 

Loins:  short,  wide,  heavy  muscled 2 

Underline:  long,  straight,  flanks  low 2 

Hindquarters — 29  Points. 

Hips:  smooth,  weU  muscled 2 

Croup:  wide,  muscled,  not  too  sloping 2 

Thighs:  deep,  broad,  muscled,  strong 2 

Quarters:  deep,  well  muscled 2 

Stifles:  clean,  muscular,  strong 2 

Gaskins:  long,  wide,  clean 2 

Hocks:  large,  strong,  free  from  meat,  clean,  well  set    ...  2 

Canons:  wide,  clean,  tendons  defined 2 

Fetlocks:  wide,  clean,  strong,  straight 1 

Pasterns:  clean,  straight,  sloping.    Any  indication  of  knuck- 
ling should  be  severely  scored 4 

Feet:  large,  deep  with  dense  and  lively  horn 8 

Action — 6  Points. 

Walk,  straight,  elastic,  true;  trot,  true,  straight,  should  show 

bottom  of  foot  when  trotting 6 

Total 100 

Breed   Characterization. — The  following  information  re- 
garding jacks  and  jennets  is  of  special  interest  from  an 


JACKS  AND  JENNETS 


187 


authoritative  standpoint,  as  only  one  or  two  of  these  breeds 
have  become  fundamentally  important  in  developing  the 
mule  industry,  which  is  the  basis  of  the  usage  of  jacks  and 
jennets.  The  jacks  now  most  largely  used  for  mule  pro- 
duction are  an  American  product,  having  originated  from 
various  crosses  and  selections  from  the  following  breeds  and 
others  of  lesser  importance.    The  American  or  Mammoth 


Fig.  77. — Catalonian  or  Spanish  jack. 


jack,  which  is  significantly  a  product  of  Kentucky  largely,  is 
most  important  in  the  mule  industry  of  today. 

Catalonian. — The  Catalonian  breed  is  a  native  of  northern 
Spain.  This  is  an  important  breed  of  jacks  from  an  American 
standpoint,  owing  to  the  relation  of  it  to  the  mule-breeding 
industry  of  this  country.  It  is  the  foundation  breed  of  the 
American  or  Mammoth  jack,  which  is  strictly  an  American 
product.  The  breed  averages  from  15  to  15-2  hands  high  and 
has  good  style,  symmetry,  and  action.    The  bone  is  fine  in 


188         JUDGING  JACKS,  JENNETS,  AND  MULES 

texture,  although  not  as  large  and  strong  as  in  the  Andalusian. 
The  color  is  black  or  brown,  the  former  color  usually  pre- 
dominating. The  points  are  light  or  mealy  in  color.  The 
ears  are  large  and  usually  erect,  the  head  broad,  the  eyes 
large  and  prominent,  and  the  facial  lines  unusually  strong. 
The  breed  is  unusually  refined,  showing  much  character, 
style,  and  action.  It  is  early  maturing  and  extremely  popular 
among  breeders  for  mule  production.  The  principal  points 
in  favor  of  the  breed  are  the  style,  quality,  color,  and  refine- 
ment. Compared  with  the  Andalusian  it  possesses  superior 
color,  bone,  and  quality. 

Andalusion. — The  Andalusion  breed  of  jacks  is  a  native  of 
southern  Spain.  The  breed  is  of  ancient  origin  and  has  a 
number  of  very  desirable  qualifications.  It  is  characterized 
usually  by  a  gray  color.  Some  specimens  of  the  breed  are 
black,  although  this  is  rather  unusual.  The  breed  has  never 
become  popular  in  America,  this  being  partly  due  to  the 
gray  color  which  is  considered  objectionable.  Representative 
specimens  of  the  breed  range  from  14-2  to  15-2  hands  high. 
The  breed  is  characterized  by  good  bone,  which  is  hard  and 
fine  in  texture.  The  head  is  broad,  well  shaped,  and  expres- 
sive. The  breed  possesses  considerable  style  and  cleanness 
and  trimness  of  outline.  Some  of  the  other  breeds,  because 
of  more  desirable  color  qualifications  and  their  special 
adaptability  to  mule  production,  have  become  more  promi- 
nent. The  quality  and  temperament  of  the  breed  are  very 
acceptable.  While  a  great  many  jacks  of  this  breed  have 
been  imported,  they  have  not  gained  special  prominence. 

Poitou. — The  Poitou  breed  is  a  native  of  France,  where 
it  is  regarded  very  favorably.  Specimens  of  this  breed 
have  never  been  widely  introduced  into  the  United  States, 
and  they  are  therefore  not  of  practical  interest.  The  color 
is  black  with  light  points,  although  grays  are  not  uncommon. 
The  gray  color  is  neither  popular  with  this  or  other  breeds, 
Poitou  jacks,  gray  in  color,  not  being  eligible  to  registry  in 
the  French  Record  Book.  In  the  native  home  the  animals 
are  ill-managed  and  usually  present  a  very  unattractive 
appearance.  The  hair  is  allowed  to  become  long,  shaggy, 
and  matted,  the  natural  tendency  being  to  a  profuse  growth 


JACKS  AND  JENNETS 


189 


of  fine-qualitied  hair.  The  head  is  large,  the  ears  long,  the 
neck  short,  chest  broad,  and  the  joints  and  hocks  unusually 
large.  The  bone  is  large  and  the  feet  of  superior  size.  As  a 
whole  the  breed  is  large  and  massive  in  development,  although 
not  the  most  attractive  and  apparently  not  the  most  useful 
under  the  conditions  which  they  are  produced.  They  are 
said  to  breed  large,  superior,  weighty  mules.     Better  care 


Fig.  78. — A  Poitou  jack,  one  of  the  rare  breeds  of  imported  jacks. 
(Courtesy  of  Adirondack  Stock  Farms,  Glens  Falls,  N.  Y.) 

and  attention  is  important  in  subserving  the  best  interests 
of  the  breed  in  their  native  home. 

Maltese. — The  Maltese  jack  is  a  native  of  the  Island  of 
Malta  in  the  Mediterranean  sea.  This  breed  has  never 
become  popular  in  American  trade,  as  it  has  been  sup- 
planted by  other  more  important  imported  and  American- 
bred  jacks.  Specimens  of  the  breed  are  small,  ranging  on 
the  average  about  14  hands  high.    The  color  is  either  black 


190  JUDGING  JACKS,  JENNETS,  AND  MULES 

or  brown.  One  of  the  principal  criticisms  of  the  breed  is 
its  lack  of  size,  bone,  and  substance.  The  head  is  very  well 
developed,  the  ears  upright  and  fine  in  quality.  Although 
the  breed  has  several  very  desirable  attributes  its  lack  of  size 
has  reacted  very  much  against  it.  These  jacks  are  vigorous 
and  show  unusual  vitality  when  in  service.  The  attainment 
of  more  size  is  necessary  to  make  the  breed  of  practical 
value  in  mule  production.  This  is  very  important  in  a 
jack  because  of  the  general  inclination  toward  miniature 
development  in  the  offspring,  either  from  a  jennet  or  a 
mare.  While  the  largest  jacks  are  not  always  the  most 
useful  or  valuable,  size,  quality,  and  substance  are  important 
attributes  in  mule  production. 

Majorca. — The  INIajorca  jack,  imported  from  the  Island 
of  Majorca  in  the  Mediterranean  sea,  while  one  of  the  largest 
breeds  imported,  has  not  become  popular  as  a  breeder  in 
this  country.  With  the  exception  of  the  French  Poitou,  it 
is  the  largest  breed  of  jacks,  often  measuring  16  hands  high; 
the  average  being  somewhat  under  this  height.  The  lack 
of  style,  finish  and  action,  however,  has  mitigated  against 
its  popularity.  The  breed  is  characterized  by  extreme 
sluggishness  not  desired  in  any  breeding  animal.  The 
head  and  ears  are  unusually  large  and  the  body,  as  a  whole, 
lacks  compactness  and  symmetry.  Although  pure  bred 
for  a  great  many  years  in  its  native  home,  its  sphere  of  use- 
fulness has  been  rather  limited.  In  Spain  it  has  met  with 
considerable  success  in  breeding  army  mules.  The  breed 
is  suggestive  of  criticism  from  almost  every  standpoint 
except  size  and  weight.  Breed  description  is  largely  a  matter 
of  interest  rather  than  utility  qualifications. 

Italian. — The  Italian  jack  is  the  smallest  of  the  breeds, 
the  average  height  ranging  from  13  to  14  hands.  The  color 
is  black  usually,  although  gray  is  not  uncommon.  The  bone 
is  rather  large  and  above  the  average  in  quality.  The  jacks 
are  of  very  little  importance  either  as  jack  or  jennet  pro- 
ducers. In  their  native  home  they  are  used  principally 
for  packing  purposes.  They  resemble  the  Maltese  jack 
very  much,  it  being  believed  by  some  that  one  is  the  de- 
scendant of  the  other.    The  breed  is  too  small  for  using  on 


JACKS  AND  JENNETS 


191 


jennets,  although  very  desirable  for  the  production  of  small 
mules.  The  small  size  of  the  breed  and,  therefore,  a  limited 
demand  for  them,  has  been  responsible  for  the  discontinuance 
of  their  importation. 

American.— The  American  or  Mammoth  jack  is  a  distinc- 
tive breed  which  is  a  derivative  of  the  several  breeds  of  jacks, 
principally  the  Catalonian,  imported  into  this  country  at  an 
earlv  date.     The  breed  is  distinctly  American  and  was  not 


Fig.  79. — An  American  or  Mammoth  jack  with  weight,  style,  and  quality. 
(Courtesy  Kentucky  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.) 

pedigreed  by  a  systematic  plan  until  1892.  A  registry  asso- 
ciation—American Jack  Stock  Stud  Book— was  established 
in  1888.  Up  to  the  former  date  jacks  which  did  not  attain 
a  height  of  14-2  hands  and  jennets  14  hands  were  not  eligible 
to  registry.  After  this  date  jacks  and  jennets  to  be  eligible 
to  registration  were  required  to  be  15-2  hands  and  15  hands 
respectively,  unless  produced  from  recorded  ancestry.  In 
case  of  an  imported  jack,  the  minimum  height  standard 
was  set  at  15  hands. 


192         JUDGING  JACKS,  JENNETS,   AND  MULES' 

The  following  measurements  are  given  as  typical  of  this 
breed : 

Tip  to  tip  of  ears 33    inches 

Width  between  eyes 9       " 

Length  of  face  (poll  to  end  of  upper  lip)    ...  33       " 

Circumference  of  jaw  and  face 40       " 

"  neck 42       " 

"  girth    . 70       " 

"  flank 72       " 

"  arm 16|     " 

"  knee 16       " 

"  canon 9i     " 

"  hock 19       " 

"  canon .  lOi     " 


From  poll  (between  ears)  to  end  of  tail  (total  length  of 
body)  84  inches.  The  principal  factors  to  consider  in 
selecting  the  jack  are  weight,  bone,  style,  action,  constitution 
and  finish.  A  jack  measuring  15|  to  16  hands  and  weighing 
about  1050  pounds  in  moderate  flesh  is  a  good  standard  to 
follow  in  selection. 

Description  of  American  Jack.  —  Hooper  and  Anderson^ 
describe  prize- winning  jacks  of  today  as  having  size  and 
weight,  good  legs  and  feet,  and  fluted  bone  of  desirable 
size.  The  head  should  be  long,  well  formed,  and  the  ears 
33  inches  or  more  from  tip  to  tip.  The  prevailing  color  is 
black  with  light  points.  The  standard  height  at  maturity 
is  15  to  IG  hands,  such  animals  weighing  from  1050  to  1150 
pounds.  The  girth  measurement  ranges  from  68  to  72 
inches.  The  loin  measurement  should  not  be  more  than 
one  or  two  inches  less  than  the  girth  measurement.  The 
canon  bone  should  be  from  eight  to  nine  and  one-half 
inches  in  circumference.  A  jack  15  hands,  3  inches  high, 
and  weighing  1150  pounds  should  measure  not  less  than 
nine  inches  below  the  knee.  The  hock  should  be  from  18 
to  21  inches  in  circumference,  the  gaskin  measurement 
approximating  16  inches,  and  the  rear  canon  10  inches  in 
circumference. 

1  Kentucky  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


MULES  193 


MULES. 


Uses  and  Adaptation. — The  mule  is  a  hybrid  obtained  from 
crossing  a  jack  on  a  mare,  the  hinney  being  the  result  of  the 
opposite  cross,  or  a  stallion  on  a  jennet.  The  latter  cross 
is  not  recommended  and  is  very  infrequently  made,  as 
the  hinney  is  inferior  to  the  mule  in  size  and  other  draft 
qualities.  In  this  country  the  principal  use  of  the  mule  is 
on  the  farm,  in  lumber  and  railroad  camps,  in  the  mines, 
and  in  army  service.  The  mule  is  not  adapted  to  city  use, 
principally  because  of  insufficient  weight  and  small  feet, 
which  are  not  adapted  to  hauling  on  pavements.  Through- 
out the  South  the  mule  constitutes  the  work  type  of  animal 
almost  to  the  exclusion  of  draft  horses.  Very  few  mules 
are  raised  in  this  section,  however,  a  large  proportion  of 
them  being  shipped  from  the  important  mule-producing 
States,  which  are  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Missouri.  The 
mule  is  especially  adapted  to  Southern  conditions,  having 
a  greater  resistance  to  heat  and  the  unusually  hard  usage 
to  which  they  are  subjected  by  colored  teamsters.  Their 
hardiness  is  unusually  apparent  and  because  of  this  attribute 
they  are  placed  at  rough  work  where  the  more  nervous 
temperament  of  horses  would  receive  a  severe  test.  Mules 
are  also  used  largely  in  the  South  for  driving  purposes, 
select  animals  making  very  acceptable  substitutes  for  the 
horse.  The  lymphatic  temperament  of  the  mule  and  the 
accompanying  hardiness  and  resistance  to  rough  treatment 
makes  them  especially  valuable  in  draft  service  of  this 
character.  Because  of  the  increase  of  this  character  of 
work  and  the  correspondingly  increasing  magnitude  of  the 
mule  industry,  the  mule  and  its  ancestral  relations  are 
deserving  of  more  specific  study  in  the  class  room  and  on  the 
farm. 

General  Requirements. — The  characteristics  which  mark  a 
perfect  type  of  horse  will  in  a  general  way  coincide  with  the 
attributes  desired  in  the  mule.  From  a  purely  market  stand- 
point the  requirements  for  the  mule  are  largely  the  same 
as  those  of  the  horse.  Market  requirements  prescribe  that 
they  must  be  sound,  possess  quality,  have  a  fine,  sleek  coat 
13 


194         JUDGING  JACKS,  JENNETS,  AND  MULES 


MULES 


195 


of  hair,  and  be  in  good  flesh.  The  mule  should  be  compact, 
and  should  possess  ample  strength  and  endurance,  these 
qualities  being  indicated  by  a  full,  capacious  chest,  broad 
muzzle,  and  large  nostril.  The  color  should  be  solid,  except 
when  characterized  by  light  points,  which  adds  to  the  fancy 
and  qualifications  for  discriminating  judges  and  buyers. 
Mare  mules  are  usually  preferred  because  of  early  maturing 
qualities. 

Age  Limitations. — Mules,  like  horses,  usually  have  a  higher 
market  value  and  sell  to  better  advantage  when  from  four 
to  eight  years  of  age,  although  young  mule  colts  sell  ad- 
vantageously on  the  open  market.  From  a  purely  utility 
standpoint,  the  mule  possesses  an  unusual  amount  of  vitality. 


Fig.   bl. — Alulci  witL  style  and  liui^li  lui\'c  an  inl'ubiun  uf  light  hur.-u  bluoJ 


often  continuing  in  service  to  an  extreme  age  under  adverse 
circumstances.  While  advancing  age  interferes  with  the 
normal  capacity  of  the  mule  it  retains  very  exceptional 
enduring  qualities  until  late  in  life,  on  the  average  being 
much  superior  to  the  horse  in  this  respect.  Market  con- 
siderations are  based  on  the  age,  conformation,  quality, 
style,  and  action.  These  factors  are  all  important  in  the 
prime  mule,  the  age  limit  mentioned  being  directly  correlated 
with  these  factors  in  mules  possessing  the  most  desirable 
market  attributes.  On  the  whole,  age  does  not  affect  the 
selling  qualities  of  mules  to  the  same  extent  that  it  does  the 
horse.  They  sell  both  younger  and  older  to  better  advantage. 
Height  and  Weight.- — The  height  and  weight  of  the  mule 
depends  entirely  on  the  proposed  use  or  market  class  con- 


196        JUDGING  JACKS,  JENNETS,  AND  MULES 


MULES  197 

siderations.  Mature  mules  range  in  weight  from  600  to  1600 
pounds  or  over.  It  is  only  on  the  larger  markets  that  the 
heavier  and  draftier  animals  may  be  obtained.  The  1100  to 
1200-pound  mule  is -best  suited  to  average  conditions  and  is 
therefore  in  greatest  demand,  as  a  general  rule.  The  heavier 
bred  mules  are  not  generally  as  much  in  favor  because  they 
are  frequently  not  as  smooth  in  form  or  as  agile  as  the  horse 
of  similar  weight.  The  lighter  mules  are  used  for  work 
which  is  less  exacting  in  its  requirements  and  usually  where 
weight  is  not  of  first  consideration.  The  height  and  weight 
are  very  closely  associated,  except  in  unusual  instances  where 
dissimilar  or  rare  crosses  have  been  made.  The  draftier, 
weightier  mules  average  about  16  hands  high  or  over  and 
weigh  from  1200  to  1600  pounds. 

General  Conformation. — In  general,  the  form  of  the  mule 
should  conform  closely  to  that  of  the  horse.  While  the 
best  individuals  do  not  equal  the  horse  in  its  square,  compact 
form,  the  nearer  this  ideal  is  approached  the  greater  the  value 
of  the  animal  from  the  market  standpoint.  Mules  do  not 
possess  the  same  amount  of  symmetry  or  rotundity  of  form 
as  the  horse.  The  correlation  of  the  parts  is  not  as  sig- 
nificant, there  being  a  greater  tendency  for  each  part  to 
individualize  itself.  This  is  not  necessarily  a  fault,  how^- 
ever,  as  a  complete  harmonious  cross  would  not  naturally  be 
obtained  under  the  conditions  in  which  mules  are  produced. 
The  mule  has  a  grosser  appearance  than  the  horse,  less 
definition  of  structure,  and  clear-cut  lines.  The  tendency 
to  resemble  the  jack  is  apparent. 

The  body  of  the  mule  is  less  cylindrical  than  that  of  the 
horse,  smaller,  and  less  capacious.  However,  the  nearer 
the  general  body  conformation  of  the  mule  approaches 
that  of  the  draft  horse  the  better  it  is  liked,  both  on  the 
market  and  in  the  show  ring.  The  feet  of  the  mule  are 
smaller  and  longer  than  in  the  horse  and  the  arch  of  the 
foot  is  greater.  The  mule  is  characterized  by  moderately 
clean,  square  legs,  and  good  feet.  The  ears  are  long,  the  body 
comparatively  narrow,  and  the  hindquarters  inclined  to  be 
light  and  unsymmetrical  as  compared  with  the  horse.  Fre- 
quently the  croup  is  higher  than  the  withers,  thus  resembling 


198 


JUDGING  JACKS,  JENNETS,   AND  MULES 


the  male  parent.  The  foretop,  mane  and  tail  are  not  as 
profuse  with  hair  as  in  the  horse,  the  tail  of  the  ass  or  mule 
having  a  brush  or  tuft.  The  bone  of  the  mule  is  usually 
acceptable,  although  the  joints  are  sometimes  coarse  and 
undefined.  The  chief  distinctions  between  the  mule  and 
the  horse  are  the  smaller  size,  lighter  weight,  less  style  and 
symmetry,  less  definition  of  form,  and  less  refinement  of 
the  mule. 


Fig.  S3. — s\.  draft  mule  with  quality  aud  tiuibh. 


Quality. — Mules  do  not  show  the  same  amount  of  quality  as 
horses,  breeding  considered.  The  indications  of  these  qualities, 
however,  are  the  same.  The  head  should  be  fine,  trim  and  clear 
in  outline;  the  neck  and  shoulders  smooth  and  compactly 
laid  in ;  the  bone  hard,  square  and  well  defined ;  and  the  hair 
straight,  sleek,  and  oily.  The  joints  should  be  well  defined, 
and  the  tendons  should  stand  back  perceptibly  from  the 


MULES  199 

canon  bone.  Coarseness  of  quality  is  indicated  by  a  soft, 
spongy  bone,  coarse,  rough  hair,  and  undefined  features. 
In  judging  quality  in  the  mule  the  line  of  demarcation 
should  not  be  too  rigidly  drawn  between  it  and  the  horse, 
as  while  the  same  standard  is  used  it  is  not  often  as  closely 
approached.  General  symmetry  and  refinement  of  the  whole 
animal  should  otherwise  be  indicative  of  the  possession  or 
absence  of  quality. 

Condition. — Condition  in  the  mule  has  the  same  general 
application  as  in  the  horse.  Most  mules  are  fattened  for 
market  often  to  an  excessive  degree.  This  excessive  accumu- 
lation of  fat  is  objectionable  from  the  standpoint  of  judging, 
selecting,  and  working  capacity.  Although  a  mule  in  high 
condition  has  a  higher  market  value  than  otherwise,  such 
preparation  is  often  the  cause  of  misjudging  an  animal. 
Great  care  should  be  taken  in  selecting  mules,  especially 
those  from  large  sale  barns  where  high  fitting  is  practised. 
A  mule  in  low  condition  is  not  attractive,  although  it  is 
often  more  valuable  than  after  having  been  fattened  and 
later  reduced  in  flesh. 

The  stress  placed  on  condition  should  be  governed  largely 
by  the  type  of  the  mule  under  consideration.  The  natural 
form  or  muscular  development  should  fix  the  value  of  a 
mule  the  same  as  of  a  horse.  The  general  muscle  develop- 
ment is  determined  by  the  length  and  width  of  the  gaskin 
or  lower  thigh.  Prominent  muscular  development  in  this 
part  is  indicative  of  the  general  body  covering.  A  well- 
formed  mule  will  naturally  fatten  and  finish  smoothly,  while 
excessive  fat  on  an  ill-formed  mule  will  cover  many  defects. 
These  factors  are  mentioned  because  of  the  uniform  practice 
of  shaping  and  selling  mules  in  high  condition  in  most  sale 
stables.  When  selections  are  thus  made  fat  and  flesh  should 
be  clearly  distinguished. 

Color. — ^The  color  of  the  mule  is  important  from  the 
market  standpoint,  as  a  premium  is  usually  paid  for  mules 
possessing  some  standard  solid  color.  The  most  acceptable 
colors  are  black,  dark  brown,  bay,  dark  gray,  sorrel,  and 
light  gray.  The  dark,  solid  colors  are  in  greatest  demand. 
Black  or  dark-colored  jacks  are  always  in  greatest  demand 


200  JUDGING  JACKS,  JENNETS,  AND  MULES 

for  mule-producing  purposes.  Gray  or  light-colored  jacks 
have  never  become  popular,  although  some  excellent  steel  or 
dark  gray  mules  are  placed  on  the  market.  However,  this 
may  be  the  result  of  using  gray  or  light-colored  mares. 
Fancy  mules  are  drawn  from  black,  dark  brown  or  dark 
gray-colored  animals. 

Soundness. — The  mule  is  ordinarily  subject  to  the  same 
kinds  of  unsoundness  as  the  horse.  However,  these  troubles 
are  not  usually  developed  to  the  same  degree.  The  natural 
hardiness  of  the  mule  has  apparently  developed  the  quality 
of  resistance  to  hereditary  and  transmissible  diseases.  This 
condition,  in  conjunction  with  the  sure-footed  qualities  of 
these  animals  in  rough,  treacherous  places  of  work  or  travel, 
gives  them  a  specially  significant  value.  It  renders  a  service 
possible  in  the  mule  which  could  not  ordinarily  be  developed 
in  animals  possessing  less  hardiness  or  stability  of  action. 

Temperament  and  Endurance. — The  mule  is  a  steady,  per- 
sistent animal,  moving  loads  more  by  intrinsic  muscular 
effort  rather  than  by  weight  qualifications,  one  of  the  chief 
attributes  of  the  draft  horse.  In  this  respect  there  is  very 
little  analogy  between  the  mule  and  the  horse.  Notwith- 
standing the  lymphatic  temperament  of  the  mule,  it  should 
show  active,  energetic  qualities  as  well  as  good  style,  sym- 
metry, and  action.  Under  the  labor  conditions  in  the  South, 
the  mule  is  worked  very  much  more  successfully  than  the 
horse.  It  will  do  work  under  the  severest  conditions  without 
necessarily  showing  any  indication  of  fatigue.  The  credited 
resistance  of  the  mule  to  disease,  its  endurance,  patience 
and  docility  are  commendable  attributes,  these  factors  being 
largely  responsible  for  the  widespread  favor  of  these  animals 
under  severe  or  trjdng  conditions. 

Style  and  Action. — The  mule  is  a  draft  type  of  animal, 
broadly  considered,  although  it  is  used  largely  for  general 
farm  and  other  utility  purposes.  In  the  South  it  is  emploj'ed 
for  driving,  especially  among  the  smaller  farmers.  Style 
and  action  should  be  judged  consistently  with  hybrid 
qualifications.  Compared  with  the  horse,  these  attributes 
are  only  moderately  developed,  although  as  much  of  both 
should  be  obtained  as  possible.    The  stride  should  be  long, 


MULES  201 

straight,  uniform,  and  well  balanced.  Both  walk  and  trot 
should  be  brisk,  free,  smooth,  even,  and  balanced.  The 
various  phases  of  action  should  be  judged  on  the  same  basis 
as  in  the  horse. 

Structural  Form  and  Qualifications. — The  detailed  struct- 
ural form  of  the  mule  is  the  same  as  in  the  horse.  Ordinarily 
the  mule  does  not  attain  the  same  size,  although  it  is  higher 
in  proportion  to  weight  than  in  the  latter  animal.  The 
head  should  be  broad,  deep,  and  have  length  in  proportion. 
The  facial  outlines  should  be  clear  cut,  the  eyes  large  and 
prominent,  and  the  ears  large,  erect  and  pointed.  The  neck 
should  be  long  and  deep  and  blend  evenly  into  the  shoulders, 
which  should  have  sufficient  obliquity  to  give  a  reasonably 
high  carriage  of  head  and  neck  and  a  short,  strong  back. 
The  body  should  be  long,  closely  coupled,  deep  ribbed,  and 
symmetrical.  The  chest  should  be  broad  and  deep  and  the 
forelegs  set  well  apart,  thus  giving  good  support. 

The  hindquarters  should  be  long,  the  croup  level,  the 
thighs  smooth  and  symmetrical.  It  is  in  the  hindquar- 
ters, however,  that  the  greatest  and  most  noticeable  faults 
are  found  in  the  mule.  The  croup  is  often  too  steep,  the 
hips  sloping,  and  the  thighs  narrow.  This  condition  should 
be  avoided  as  much  as  possible.  The  hindlegs  should  be 
straight,  strong  and  square  in  bone  and  well  muscled  in 
the  thighs  and  gaskins.  The  feet  should  be  large  and  the 
horn  fine  and  dense  in  quality.  These  qualifications  should 
be  closely  observed,  as  the  feet  of  the  mule  are  frequently 
narrow  and  contracted.  The  pasterns  should  be  strong  and 
have  a  sufficient  slope  to  give  ease  and  balance  of  move- 
ment. Other  than  these  considerations,  the  points  of  the 
horse  should  form  the  basis  of  comparison. 

The  following  points  on  judging  the  mule  were  furnished 
by  J.  W.  Jones,  Jock  and  Mule  Judge,  Xashrille,  Tenn. 

The  mule  should  be  of  some  good  solid  color.  White 
points  are  desirable,  although  they  add  fancy  and  not  utility. 

The  mule  should  have  quality,  as  the  expert  buyers  term 
it.  This  is  an  all-around  fineness  that  portrays  good  blood 
and  breeding  with  conformation  that  indicates  the  best 
development  of  the  nervous  system,  together  with  stamina 
and  abilitv  to  withstand  much  work. 


202         JUDGING  JACKS,  JENNETS,  AND  MULES 

The  head  should  be  large  and  unusually  bony,  with  a  Roman 
nose  free  from  a  meaty  appearance.  The  features  should 
be  prominent,  with  a  pleasant  appearance. 

The  neck  should  come  out  well  back  on  the  shoulders  and 
should  be  arched,  thus  making  an  inclined  plane  from  the 
shoulders  to  the  top  of  the  head.  The  chest  should  be 
deep  and  prominent,  protruding  like  the  breast  of  a  turkey. 

The  shoulders  should  be  long  and  protrude  well  into  the 
back.     The  collar-bone  should  be  broad  and  sloping. 

The  legs  should  be  nearly  straight,  with  broad,  clean, 
large  bone,  free  from  meatiness.  The  feet  should  be  large, 
well  rounded,  and  strongly  braced  from  all  quarters  of  the 
inner  joints. 

The  knees  should  be  broad,  deep,  and  firmly  set.  The 
hocks  should  be  broad  and  muscular,  but  the  feet  free  from 
meatiness. 

The  forearm  and  stifle  should  be  well  developed,  thickly 
covered  with  muscle  tapering  to  the  knee  and  hock  in  regular 
well-defined  lines. 

The  hoof  should  not  present  a  ribbed  appearance,  but 
should  be  smooth  and  inclined  to  look  sleek  and  oily.  It 
should  not  be  contracted,  but  well  sprung  and  supported  by 
a  well-extended,  healthy  frog.  The  old  saying,  "no  foot  no 
mule,"  is  literally  true,  as  it  is  in  any  other  kind  of  travelling 
animal. 

As  an  evidence  of  strength  and  indication  of  great  staying 
qualities,  the  loin  and  croup,  as  well  as  the  chest,  should  be 
broad  and  well  developed. 

The  spring  of  the  ribs  is  important,  as  they  should  range 
close  up  to  the  hip-bone  and  come  out  from  the  spine  well 
sprung  and  extended.     A  flat  rib  is  very  objectionable. 

The  ears  should  be  long,  thin  and  tapering  to  the  points, 
presenting  a  rather  folding  appearance  about  the  middle. 
They  should  be  set  on  the  head  erect. 

The  coat  of  hair  should  be  soft  and  shiny,  covering  a  pliable 
skin,  mellow  and  soft  to  the  touch.  This  denotes  good 
fattening  qualities. 

The  mule  should  have  good  length  with  a  low-set  flank 
and  bowels.     He  should  have  all  the  weight  possible. 


MULES  203 

Score  Card  for  Mules. 

General  Appearance — 16  Points.                                         Perfect  score. 
Weight:  score  according  to  age  and  type. 
Height:  14  hands  and  up;   estimated.. hands;   actual 

hands 4 

Form:  symmetrical,  smooth 4 

Quality:  bones  clean;  tendons  defined;  skin  and  hair  fine       .         4 

Temperament;  energetic;  good  disposition 4 

Head  and  Neck — 6  Points. 

Head:  well  defined;  medium  size 

Muzzle:  fine;  nostrils  large;  lips  thin  and  even       .... 

Eyes:  full,  bright,  clear 

Forehead:  flat,  broad,  full 

Ears:  large,  well  carried,  tapering 

Neck:  muscled,  crested;  throat-latch  defined;  windpipe  large 
Forehand — 21  Points. 

Shoulder:  long,  sloping,  well  muscled 2 

Ar7n:  short,  muscled,  thrown  well  forward  and  backward; 

forearm  well  muscled,  long,  wide 3 

Knees:  wide,  clean,  straight,   deep,  well  supported;   canons 

short,  wide;  tendons  well  defined 4 

Fetlocks:  wide,  straight,  strong;  pasterns  short,  clean,  straight, 

angle  with  ground  45  degrees 4 

Feel:  size   medium,    even;   horn   dense;   sole   concave;   bars 

strong;  frog  prominent,  elastic;  heel  wide,  high  ....         6 
Withers:  smooth,  well  muscled,  continuous  with  neck  and 

back 2 

Body — 8  Points. 

Chest:  deep,  low;  girth  large 1 

Rihs:  long,  sprung  close 2 

Back:  straight,  short,  well  muscled 2 

Loins:  wide,  short,  thick 2 

Underline:  long;  flank  low 1 

Hindquarters — 29  Points. 

Hips:  smooth,  wide,  level;  croup  wide,  muscular   ....         4 

Tail:  attached  high,  well  carried 1 

Thighs:  long,  well  muscled,  open  angled 2 

Quarters:  heavily  muscled,  deep 2 

Gaskin:  wide  muscled 2 

Hocks:  wide,    well    defmed,    strongly    supported,    straight; 

canons  short,  wide,  tendons  set  well  back 9 

Fetlocks:  wide,  straight;  pasterns  short,  angle  with  ground 

55  degrees 5 

Feet:  medium  size,  even;  horn  dense;  frog  prominent,  elastic; 

bars  strong;  sole  concave;  heel  high,  wide 4 

Action — 20  Points. 

Walk    smooth,   stride    long,    active;    trot    rapid,    straight, 

regular 20 

Total 100 

Qualifications    of    Mule    Mares. — The   qualifications   of 
mule  mares  vary,  depending  on  the  type  of  mule  which  is 


204         JUDGING  JACKS,  JENNETS,  AND  MULES 

to  be  produced.  There  are  certain  attributes,  however, 
which  a  mule  mare  should  possess  regardless  of  this  factor. 
Such  an  animal  should  have  size,  weight,  good  conformation, 
quality,  and  refinement.  The  head  should  show  an  intelligent, 
lively  disposition,  and  the  temperament  should  be  active. 
The  barrel  should  be  long,  deep,  broad,  thus  indicating 
capacit3^  The  feet  and  legs  should  be  normal  from  every 
viewpoint,  including  the  normal  position  of  the  feet  and  legs 
as  formerly  described,  and  quality  should  be  therein  indicated. 


Fig.  84. — A  characteristic  mule  mare.     (Courtesy  Kentucky  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station.) 

Because  of  the  generally  recognized,  comparatively  coarse 
qualities  of  the  jack,  mule  mares  should  possess  unusual 
quality  and  refinement.  Heavy  draft  mares  are  not  as 
desirable  for  this  purpose  as  those  possessing  some  of  the 
blood  from  the  lighter  breeds,  such  as  the  Standardbred 
or  Thoroughbred.  There  shoukl  be  sufficient  blood  from 
these  breeds  incorporated  in  the  mule  mare  to  overcome 
the  coarser  qualities  dominating  in  the  jack.  Suffolk  mares 
are  credited  with  good  mule-producing  qualifications. 

The  body  of  the  jack  has  a  tendency  to  angularity  and, 


MULES  205 

therefore,  he  should  not  be  mated  with  mares  of  this  con- 
formation. ]Mares  with  comparatively  large,  smooth,  sym- 
metrical bodies  will  add  size,  smoothness,  and  refinement  to 
the  mule.  ]Mares  possessing  an  undue  amount  of  cold  blood 
are  not  adapted  to  mule  production.  In  seeking  refinement 
it  should  not  be  carried  to  the  extreme  and  thus  decrease  the 
size  of  the  mule,  as  such  animals  are  not  readily  salable  at 
remunerative  prices.  The  principal  attributes  of  the  mule- 
producing  mare  are  included  in  moderate  height  and  weight, 
a  body  with  squareness  of  form,  well  proportioned  with  the 
other  regions,  smoothness  and  symmetry-,  strong  bone, 
quality  and  general  refinement,  thus  showing  a  moderate 
amount  of  light  horse  finish  and  refining  characteristics. 

Market  Classes  of  Mules. — ^The  mule  markets  recognize 
several  classes  which  include  the  following:  draft,  farm, 
sugar,  cotton,  and  mining  mules.  The  first  two  classes 
are  generally  of  special  significance,  although  not  the  most 
widely  bred  or  used.  IMarket  mules  are  sold  wholly  on 
their  fitness  for  draft,  agricultural,  army,  or  mine  use. 

The  Illinois  Experiment  Station  defines  them  on  a  basis 
of  height  and  weight  qualifications  as  follows: 

Class.  Height  in  hands.  Weight  range. 

Draft  mules 16      to  17-2  1200  to  1600 

Farm  mules 15-2  to  16  900  to  12.50 

Sugar  mules 16      to  17  1150  to  1300 

Cotton  mules 13-2  to  15-2  750  to  1100 

:Mming  mules 12      to  16  600  to  1350 

Draft  Mules. — This  type  of  mule  is  the  largest  which  is 
placed  on  the  market.  Their  height  ranges  from  16  to  17-2 
hands,  and  their  weight  from  1200  to  1600  pounds.  They 
should  be  large  and  strong  in  bone,  although  the  quality 
should  be  up  to  standard,  the  same  as  in  the  horse.  They 
should  be  compact,  deep  bodied,  low  set,  closely  coupled,  and 
have  symmetry  of  form  throughout.  The  muscling  should 
be  heavy,  especially  about  the  thighs  and  quarters.  They 
should  have  a  hardy  and  rugged  appearance,  such  as  that 
which  characterizes  the  draft  type  of  the  horse.  INIules  of 
this  type  possessing  plenty  of  quality  and  substance  are 
capable  of  doing  heavy  team  work,  and  their  value  for  this 


206         JUDGING  JACKS,   JENNETS,   AND  MULES 

purpose  is  being  appreciated  more  as  they  are  given  fair 
trials. 

Farm  Mules. — Farm  mules,  as  the  name  designates,  are 
used  almost  exclusively  for  agricultural  purposes.  The 
type    varies    considerably,   although    many    very  valuable 


Fig.  85. — Draft  mules  16^  hands  high,  weighing  1650  pounds 


animals  are  classed  as  farm  mules.  The  height  of  this  type 
ranges  from  15  to  16  hands,  and  the  weight  ranges  from  900 
to  1300  pounds.  Mules  of  this  type  are  not  as  symmetrical 
or  as  heavily  muscled  as  those  of  the  draft  type,  which  are 
supposed  to  represent  the  acme  of  mule  production.  Farm 
mules  are  somewhat  rangier,  the  bone  is  inclined  to  be  lighter, 
the  body  less  compact,  and  the  animal,  as  a  whole,  more 


MULES 


207 


upstanding.  They  should  possess  good  bone,  feet  of  moder- 
ate size  and  quaUty  sufficient  to  make  them  sell  readily 
on  the  market. 

Sugar  Mules.— Sugar  mules  are  used  largely  throughout 
the  Southern  states  on  the  sugar  farms  or  plantations. 
The  name  is  significant  of  the  work  which  is  required  of 


Fig.  86. — Draft  mules,  showing  two  good  colors.     Suitable  either  for  draft 
or  farm  purposes. 

them.  These  mules  range  in  height  from  16  to  17  hands, 
and  weigh  from  1150  to  1300  pounds.  Usually  they  are 
heavier  and  more  compact  than  the  cotton  mule.  ^Nlare 
mules  are  most  desired  for  the  trade,  ranging  from  three  to 
six  years  old.  The  quality  is  usually  above  the  average  and 
the  general  appearance  is  very  striking,  especially  in  the 
indication  of  breediness.     Weight,  finish,  and  quality  are 


208         JUDGING  JACKS,  JENNETS,   AND  MULES 

greater  on  the  average  than  that  of  the  cotton  or  farm  mule. 
For  this  reason  sugar  mules  sell  for  more  money.  In  judging 
sugar  mules  special  attention  should  be  given  to  weight, 
quality,  and  adaptability  to  the  work  in  question.  The  bone 
should  be  fine  and  strong,  the  joints  well  developed,  and  the 
feet  somewhat  larger  than  that  of  the  average  mule.  They 
should  be  symmetrical  in  their  build,  possess  an  intelligent 


Fig.  87. — A  choice  sugar  mule. 


(Courtesy  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment 

Station.) 


and  shapely  head,  be  strong  in  the  neck  and  shoulder  develop- 
ment, and  compact  throughout  the  body. 

Mining  Mules. — Mining  mules  are  used  in  the  mines  and, 
consequently,  do  not  possess  the  size  and  weight  of  the  other 
classes  mentioned.  The  character  of  work  for  which  they 
are  used,  especially  pit  mules,  necessitates  a  rather  small, 
agile  type  of  animal.  They  range  in  weight  from  600  to 
1350  pounds,  this  depending  upon  whether  they  are  used  in 
the  pit  or  above.     Only  the  smaller  types  are  used  under 


MULES  209 

ground,  and  as  a  large  majority  of  them  are  purchased  for 
this  purpose  the  average  height  and  weight  runs  low.  In 
height  they  range  from  12  to  16  hands.  The  body  should 
be  compactly  built,  the  legs  short  and  strong,  the  bone 
rather  heavy,  and  the  feet  large.  It  is  necessary  to  have 
animals  without  blemishes,  as  such  a  condition  is  likely  to 


Fig.  88. — A  mine  mule,  showing  characteristics  of  medium  pitter. 
(Courtesy  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.) 

give  trouble  because  of  the  sulphur  and  chemicals  to  which 
they  are  subjected  underground. 

Cotton  Mules. — Cotton  mules  are  used  largely  for  the  culti- 
vation   of   cotton   throughout   the    Southern    states.     The 
demand  is  usually  for  a  rather  small  type  of  animal,  the 
weight  ranging  from  650  to  1100  pounds  and  the  height 
14 


210         JUDGING  JACKS,  JENNETS,   AND  MULES 


from  13  to  15-2  hands.  This  type  of  mule  is  of  still  lighter 
build  than  the  mining  mule^.  The  body  is  inclined  to  be 
somewhat  rangy,  the  bone  small,  and  the  body  upstanding. 
The  quality  should  be  uniform  and  of  about  the  same  stand- 
ard as  that  possessed  b}-  the  mining  mule,  the  difference 
being  in  favor  of  the  latter. 

These  mules  are  usually  brought  into  the  South  in  the  early 
spring  before  the  cotton-planting  season  begins.     In  the  fall 


Fig.  89. — A  choice  cotton  mule.     (Courtesy  Illinois  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station.) 

they  are  frequently  sold  back  to  the  dealers,  refattened  at 
the  close  of  the  year  and  sold  again  the  following  season. 
For  this  reason  the  age  varies  considerably.  Although  a 
standard  market  type,  the  age  is  not  as  uniform  as  in  other 
types,  which  are  sold  and  placed  immediately  in  continuous 
service. 

1  Compared  with  surface-mining  mule. 


HORSES,  JACKS,  JENNETS,   AND  MULES         211 


EXAMINATION  FOR  UNSOUNDNESS  AND  FAULTY 
CONFORMATION.^ 

HORSES,  JACKS,  JENNETS,  AND  MULES. 

Relation  of  Soundness  to  Utility. — In  consideration  of  domes- 
tic animals,  it  is  largely  in  the  horse  and  mule  that  the 
determination  of  the  degree  of  soundness,  specifically  con- 
sidered, is  of  practical  consideration.  In  other  animals, 
structural  development  and  the  nature  of  work  performed 
does  not  tend  to  produce  such  conditions.  In  horses  and 
other  draft  animals,  broadly  speaking,  an  unsoundness  or 
faulty  conformation  is  of  vital  concern,  as  the  presence  or 
absence  of  these  conditions  determines  or  measures  value 
both  in  breeding  and  draft  service.  While  the  ratio  of  value 
may  differ,  depending  on  the  use  of  the  animal  and  nature  of 
the  unsoundness  or  faulty  conformation,  under  any  conditions 
the  value  is  depreciated,  ranging  from  that  of  a  slight  objec- 
tion to  practical  worthlessness.  Determination  of  these  con- 
ditions involves  not  only  a  broad  knowledge  of  the  structure 
of  horses  and  mules  whereby  abnormalities  may  be  detected 
but  also  a  knowledge  of  the  resulting  depreciation  in  value 
for  draft  or  breeding  purposes. 

Definition  and  Limitations. — An  unsoundness  is  any 
abnormal  condition  which  makes  an  animal  less  capable  or 
which  will,  during  development,  decrease  natural  usefulness. 
An  absolutely  sound  animal  does  not  possess  the  slightest 
deviation  from  the  normal  structure.  Such  animals  are 
rare,  however,  as  slight  defects  are  usually  present  in  the 
most  perfect  specimens,  although  they  do  not  usually  interfere 
with  the  usefulness  or  market  value.  Soundness  is  relative 
and  not  absolute,  a  horse  usually  being  practically  sound  and 
not  absolutely  so. 

An  unsoundness  should  be  differentiated  from  a  blemish 
which  simply  depreciates  the  market  value  of  an  animal 
usually    without    impairing    usefulness.     A    blemish    may 

^  Special  credit  due  M.  H.  Reynolds,  University  of  Minnesota. 


212         JUDGING  JACKS,  JENNETS,  AND  MULES 

occasionally  impair  usefulness;  however,  such  conditions 
are  rare.  Blemishes  usually  decrease  market  value  only, 
while  an  unsoundness  decreases  both  market  value  and  use- 
fulness. A  theoretically  sound  horse  is  one  which  has  no 
disease  or  other  condition  that  interferes  with  his  usefulness 
or  market  value.  He  may  have  a  disease  from  which  he 
will  recover,  yet  at  the  time  of  the  examination  such  an 
animal  will  be  unsound. 

Unsoundness  may  be  temporary  or  permanent.  Tem- 
porary unsoundness  may  be  illustrated  by  an  influenza  from 
which  a  horse  will  probably  recover,  or  by  light  sprains  or  a 
bruised  ankle  from  interfering.  In  the  latter  case  the 
question  would  arise  at  once  whether  the  interfering  was  due 
to  faulty  conformation  or  to  faulty  shoeing.  In  the  former 
case  the  condition  would  be  serious,  while  in  the  latter  it 
would  be  unimportant  as  it  could  be  remedied  by  shoeing 
the  animal  properly. 

Normal  Conditions. — It  is  necessary  to  become  familiar 
with  the  usual  normal  and  abnormal  conditions  for  com- 
parative purposes.  The  hocks  may  be  perfectly  sound 
and  ytt  have  a  peculiar  bony  development.  In  such  cases 
it  will  generally  be  found  that  both  hocks  are  alike.  The 
knees  may  have  a  similar  peculiar  development  and  yet  be 
perfectly  sound.  It  is  necessary  to  become  familiar  with  all 
such  conditions  before  an  animal  can  be  examined  rapidly 
and  accurately. 

General  Examination. — An  examination  for  soundness 
should  be  systematic  and  thorough,  although  it  may  be 
rapidly  accomplished.  The  examination  should  be  made  with 
the  horse  in  the  stall,  as  he  backs  out,  stands  at  rest,  and  in 
motion.  In  the  stall  he  should  be  examined  for  cribbing, 
weaving  or  any  other  stable  habit  which  is  objectionable. 
As  the  horse  backs  out  of  the  stall,  he  may  show  a  peculiar 
use  of  the  hindlegs  or  imperfect  control,  due  to  serious 
disorders  of  the  nervous  system.  Frequently  the  first 
intimation  of  spavin  may  be  detected  as  the  animal  is  made 
to  stand  from  side  to  side,  particularly  as  he  steps  toward  the 
spavined  leg. 

After  the  animal  is  taken  out  of  the  stall  his  movements 


HORSES,  JACKS,  JENNETS,   AND  MULES         213 

should  be  observed  while  walking  and  trotting.  He  should 
be  viewed  coming  toward,  passing  by,  and  going  from  the 
observer,  who  should  note  the  movement  of  the  entire  body 
and  the  use  of  each  limb.  It  is  especially  important  to 
observe  the  head  and  hips  in  locating  the  diseased  limb. 
The  front  foot  is  a  very  common  seat  of  lameness. 

Locating  Lameness. — It  is  usually  quite  easy  for  any 
observer  to  recognize  that  an  animal  is  lame,  provided  the 
lameness  is  at  all  decided,  but  there  are  many  cases  where 
the  lameness  is  so  very  slight  that  it  is  difficult  for  an  expert 
to  locate  it  or  even  be  sure  that  the  animal  is  lame.  A  very 
common  error  is  that  of  locating  the  lameness  on  the  wrong 
side.  This  is  easily  avoided  if  it  is  remembered  that  the 
head  and  weight  of  the  body  in  general  come  down  most 
noticeably  with  the  sound  limb.  For  instance,  a  horse  which 
is  lame  in  the  left  front  leg  will  drop  the  head  very  perceptibly 
as  he  lands  upon  the  right  front  leg. 

Some  forms  of  lameness  are  detected  with  great  difficulty 
when  the  animal  is  walking,  but  are  easily  seen  when  trotting. 
It  is  usually  conceded  that  the  latter  is  the  best  gait  for 
diagnostic  purposes,  although  the  observer  should  study  the 
movements  at  both  the  walk  and  trot  if  possible.  The 
animal  should  be  tried  on  both  hard  and  soft  ground,  and 
on  the  side  of  a  hill.  If  the  lameness  is  in  the  foot,  it  is 
most  marked  when  the  animal  travels  on  hard  ground.  On 
the  contrary,  when  a  horse  is  lame  in  the  shoulder,  he  is 
apt  to  travel  with  great  difficulty  in  deep  mud  or  snow. 

Bony  Growths. — Splints,  spavins,  and  ringbones,  are  simply 
developments  of  bony  tissue,  the  result  of  an  inflammation 
of  the  periosteum.  These  are  all  recognized  as  forms  of 
unsoundness,  and  usually  cause  lameness.  This  inflamma- 
tion may  have  its  origin  in  bruises  or  other  injuries,  or  possibly 
the  inflammation  in  this  tissue  may  be  the  result  of  an  extend- 
ing inflammation  from  some  adjoining  tissue,  but  in  any  case 
the  result  is  usually  a  projecting  development  of  bony  tissue. 

Sylints. — These  appear  as  small  tumors  along  the  meta- 
carpal bones,  usually  at  the  junction  of  the  large  and  small 
metacarpals.  They  may  be  of  various  shapes  and  sizes. 
They  are  generally  more  serious  when  located  near  the  knee. 


214         JUDGING  JACKS,  JENNETS,   AND  MULES 

Occasionally  there  appears  what  is  known  as  a  pegged  splint, 
in  which  the  growth  extends  across  the  back  of  the  canon, 
beneath  the  suspensory  ligament. 

The  lameness  which  results  from  splints  is  rather  easily 
recognized:  (1)  By  locating  the  splint,  noting  the  sensitive- 
ness to  pressure  at  this  point.  A  peculiarity  of  the  lameness 
is  that  the  horse  w^alks  nearly  or  quite  sound,  but  trots  very 
lame,  especially  on  hard  ground.  There  is  a  natural  tendency 
to  recover.  Lameness  from  splints  is  rarely  seen  in  aged 
horses  for  this  reason.  (2)  When  the  splint  appears  very 
close  to  the  knee,  or  in  the  pegged  form,  there  is  less  prospect 
of  natural  recovery,  and  with  the  latter  form  lameness  is  very 
apt  to  be  permanent,  unless  relieved  b}^  surgical  means. 

Ringbone. — This  is  characterized  by  enlargement  of  some 
portion  of  the  pastern  bones.  It  may  be  in  front,  behind, 
on  either  side,  or  extend  entirely  around  this  region.  It 
may  be  located  near  the  crown  of  the  hoof  or  very  much 
higher,  thus  dividing  ringbone  artificially  into  two  classes, 
high  and  low. 

Ringbones  are  very  much  more  serious  forms  of  unsound- 
ness than  splints,  as  they  are  more  apt  to  be  permanent 
in  effect,  and  even  if  the  soreness  is  relieved,  there  is  likely 
to  be  a  mechanical  lameness  because  of  a  stiffened  joint. 
This  unsoundness  and  the  lameness  resulting  from  it  are  very 
easily  detected. 

Sidebones. — A  sidebone  indicates  an  abnormal  condition 
of  the  lateral  cartilages,  which  are  naturally  elastic.  Side- 
bones  are  detected  as  bonelike  structures  which  appear  above 
the  crown  of  the  hoof  and  just  beneath  the  skin  on  either 
side.  They  may  cause  lameness  during  the  period  of  inflam- 
mation and  hardening.  In  some  cases  the  lameness  is 
persistent. 

Spavin. — The  cause  of  lameness,  recognized  under  the  name 
of  bone  spavin,  is  an  abnormal  condition  of  the  tarsal  bones 
at  the  lower,  inner,  front  portion  of  the  hock.  There  is 
usually  an  enlargement,  varying  from  a  very  small  growth, 
commonly  called  a  jack,  to  a  very  large  growth,  known  as 
bone  spavin. 

There  is  another  form  of  bone  spavin  in  which  there  is  a 


HORSES,  JACKS,  JENNETS,   AND  MULES         215 

slight  or  possibly  no  external  development  at  all.  In  this 
form  of  spavin  there  may  be  diseases  of  the  bones  in  the 
deeper  parts;  particularly  erosions  of  the  articular  cartilages. 
Animals  with  bone  spavins  have  a  tendency  to  recover  with- 
out treatment,  although  in  many  cases  the  period  required  for 
natural  recovery  is  very  long,  extending  through  a  period  of 
years.  In  other  cases  recovery  can  never  occur.  Recovery, 
when  brought  about  by  natural  or  artificial  conditions,  imphes 
that  certain  of  the  tarsal  bones  have  united  in  the  process 
called  technically,  anchylosis,  and  the  inflamed  surfaces  are 
no  longer  rubbing  together  as  the  limb  moves. 

Many  bone  spavins  doubtless  appear  as  the  result  of  slight 
injuries  in  susceptible  subjects,  particularly  those  that  have 
a  strong  hereditary  tendency  to  diseases  of  this  kind.  Bone 
spavin  is  one  of  the  most  serious  forms  of  unsoundness.  A 
spavined  horse  steps  on  the  toe,  and  carries  the  hock-joint 
with  as  little  movement  as  possible.  The  lameness  usually 
disappears  or  at  least  greatly  improves  with  exercise.  What 
is  known  as  the  hock  test  is  made  by  holding  up  the  limb, 
with  the  hock  sharply  bent,  for  several  minutes.  The  horse 
is  then  started  suddenly.  In  case  of  spavin  the  first  few  steps 
are  very  lame.  Old  horses  not  aft'ected  by  spavin  may  respond 
to  this  test  and  lead  to  error  in  judgment. 

Synovial  Sacs. — The  ordinary  wind  puffs  of  the  ankle, 
and  bog  spavins  and  thoroughpins  at  the  hock,  are  typical 
illustrations  of  enlarged  sj'novial  sacs.  They  are  not  usually 
the  cause  of  lameness,  but  are  to  be  regarded  rather  as 
symptoms. 

Wi7id  puffs  usually  indicate  considerable  amount  of  hard 
road  work. 

Bog  Spavins. — These  are  enlargements  of  the  synovial 
sac  of  the  hock-joint,  and  appear  at  the  inner  and  front 
part  of  the  hock.     They  are  often  hereditary. 

Thoroughpins  are  very  similar  to  bog  spavins  and  wind 
puffs,  except  in  location.  Thoroughpins  appear  at  the 
upper  and  back  part  of  the  hock.  They  may  or  may  not 
connect  with  the  synovial  sac  of  the  hock-joint. 

Open  Joint. — Lameness  from  open  joint  is  quite  common 
among  city  horses.     This  usually  results  from  punctures  of 


216  JUDGING  JACKS,  JENNETS,   AND  MULES 

the  synovial  sacs  and  the  entrance  of  foreign  matter,  resulting 
in  an  acute  inflammation  or  synovitis.  This  form  of  lame- 
ness can  usually  be  very  easily  detected,  and  the  cause 
recognized.  It  is  very  serious  under  all  circumstances,  and 
frequently  results  in  loss  of  the  animal. 

Curb. — This  is  a  result  of  an  injury  or  strain  at  the  back 
of  the  hock-joints,  and  is  characterized  at  first  by  a  hot, 
sensitive  swelhng  just  back  of  the  lowest  part  of  the  hock- 
joint.  After  the  period  of  swelling  and  inflammation  sub- 
sides, there  is  apt  to  remain  a  hard  tumor,  particularly  on 
what  is  known  as  curby  hocks.  In  cases  of  young  animals 
given  proper  treatment  the  remaining  enlargement  may  be 
very  slight  or  may  practically  disappear. 

Capped  Hock. — Capped  hock  is  not  usually  a  cause  or 
condition  of  lameness;  but  is  mentioned  for  other  reasons. 
This  is  an  unusual  prominence  at  the  point  of  the  hock, 
produced  by  bruises.  Some  horses  get  it  by  backing  against 
the  stalls,  so  that  they  injure  the  point  of  the  hock.  Other 
cases  are  produced  in  car  shipments,  or  from  a  natural 
tendency.  The  first  swelling  may  usually  be  reduced  by 
prompt  treatment,  but  it  returns  with  very  slight  provoca- 
tion, and  after  several  attacks  is  likely  to  be  permanent. 
This  abnormality  does  not  injure  horses  for  actual  use,  but 
it  is  unsightly,  and  materially  reduces  the  sale  value. 

Shoe  Boil. — This  appears  as  an  enlargement  in  the  point 
of  the  elbow  or  superior  extremity  of  the  ulna.  It  is  very 
similar  to  capped  hock  in  cause,  character,  and  subsequent 
history.  Shoe  boils  are  unsightly  and  injure  sale,  but  do  not 
usually  cause  lameness. 

Other  Important  Examinations. — The  poll  should  be 
examined  for  evidences  of  enlargement,  roughness  or  scars, 
which  are  the  result  of  fistula  or  poll  evil.  The  poll  and 
back  of  the  ears  should  be  examined  for  sitfasts,  due  to 
pressure  from  the  bridle  or  halter.  If  the  sitfast  has  been 
present  an  animal  is  likely  to  offer  some  resistance  when 
the  hand  is  passed  over  the  region  of  the  trouble. 

Ears. — The  ears  in  a  well-bred  animal  should  be  lean, 
clean,  and  covered  with  soft,  fine  hair.  The  ears  should  be 
freely  movable,  this  being  a  good  index  to  temperament. 


HORSES,  JACKS,  JENNETS,  AND  MULES         217 

In  examining  them  it  should  be  noted  whether  small  tumors 
are  present.  Horses  in  which  there  is  little  or  no  movement 
of  the  ears,  are  usually  afflicted  with  deafness. 

Eyes. — The  eyes  should  be  of  equal  size,  large,  clear,  free 
from  tears,  the  pupils  black,  the  lids  thin  and  free  from 
wrinkles.  They  should  be  equally  prominent  and  set  on  the 
same  level.  Small  eyes  are  known  as  pig  eyes  and  generally 
indicate  a  sullen  disposition  or  an  animal  lacking  in  courage. 
Exceptionally  large,  prominent  eyes  are  frequently  associated 
with  short-sightedness.  Horses  which  show  an  unusual 
amount  of  white  in  their  eyes  generally  possess  some  form  of 
visciousness. 

Nostrils. — The  nostrils  should  be  flexible  and  large  enough 
to  admit  an  ample  supply  of  air.  Small  nostrils  usually 
denote  narrow  chest,  weak  lungs,  and,  therefore,  low  constitu- 
tion or  vitality.  Nostrils  which  are  constantly  dilated  pre 
indicative  of  wind  troubles.  If  the  cartilages  at  the  opening 
are  hard,  the  condition  usually  denotes  heaves.  During 
exercise  the  movements  are  accelerated  in  proportion  to  the 
exertion.  The  color  of  the  nostrils  should  be  rosy  pink,  this 
becoming  brighter  with  exercise.  The  presence  of  scars, 
irregular  in  shape  and  extent,  or  the  appearance  of  ulcers 
show  indications  of  glanders.  Occasionally  small  tumors 
may  be  found.  Openings  from  the  teeth  or  from  the  facial 
sinusus  may  be  the  source  of  pus  discharges. 

Teeth. — The  teeth  of  the  horse  should  come  in  direct 
opposition.  If  the  upper  teeth  overhang  the  lower,  the 
condition  is  known  as  parrot  mouth.  Excessive  forms  of 
this  trouble  prevent  grasping  of  food,  prevents  even  wearing 
of  the  incisors  and  molars,  and  interferes  with  the  nutritive 
powers.  The  front  teeth  should  be  examined  for  evidence 
of  cribbing.  Horses  addicted  to  this  vice  have  the  outer 
border  of  the  teeth  worn  off  more  than  the  inner,  thus 
leaving  a  distinct  wedge-shaped  opening  between  the  upper 
and  lower  teeth.  The  presence  of  premolars  or  wolf  teeth 
is  not  considered  an  unsoundness.  They  have  no  relation  to 
the  eye  diseases. 

Withers. — The  withers  are  subject  to  abuses  from  various 
sources,  such  as  narrow  stalls,  tight  collars  or  saddles.    These 


218         JUDGING  JACKS,  JENNETS,   AND  MULES 

sometimes  cause  abscesses  or  a  fistula,  and  even  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  ends  of  the  bony  spine.  A  depression  may  thus  be 
formed  in  the  top  of  the  neck  or  withers.  A  fistula  may  appear 
as  a  small,  hard,  swelling  on  one  or  both  sides  of  the  neck, 
near  the  top  where  the  collar  is  placed.  Running  sores 
or  swellings  in  this  region  should  be  regarded  with  suspicion. 

Shoulders. — The  shoulders  should  be  examined  for  sweeney 
or  atrophy  of  the  muscles,  for  tumors,  collar  boils,  and  abnor- 
mal growths.  Atrophy  of  the  muscles  may  be  slight  wherein 
some  weak,  counter-irritant  may  be  used  to  cause  temporary 
fulness.  A  well-marked  atrophy  may  be  filled  with  air  for 
the  temporary  effect  of  deceiving  the  eye.  The  point  of 
the  shoulders  should  be  examined  for  enlargement  due  to 
osteoporosis  or  articular  joint  disease 

Feet. — The  hoof  is  composed  of  a  hardened  sole  and  frog 
which  should  be  elastic  and  tough.  The  wall  is  that  part  of 
the  hoof  which,  is  seen  when  the  foot  is  on  the  ground.  The 
wall  is  divided  into  the  toe,  side,  quarter  and  heel.  The 
frog  is  the  wedge-shaped  soft  horn  lodged  in  the  angle  formed 
by  the  bars  and  the  back  of  the  sole.  The  sole  is  all  that 
portion  viewed  when  the  foot  is  lifted  without  including  the 
margin  of  the  wall  and  frog.  These  parts  are  important  in 
the  examination. 

The  feet  should  be  examined  for  sand  cracks,  toe  cracks, 
quarter  cracks,  and  other  such  conditions.  Examination 
should  be  made  for  the  parallel  rings  that  mark  the  effect 
of  laminitis  or  founder.  The  presence  of  calk  marks  indi- 
cates restlessness  or  carelessness  with  which  the  animal 
handles  himself.  The  heel  should  have  good  width  and  be 
wider  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top.  The  frog  should  be  full, 
wedge-shaped,  and  firm.  It  is  this  part  which  becomes  the 
seat  of  thrush  or  canker.  The  character  of  the  shoe  should 
be  noted  for  balancing  the  action  and  preventing  inter- 
ference. 

Examination  in  Harness. — The  horse  should  be  placed  in 
harness  and  attention  given  to  his  behavior  while  the  harness 
is  being  fitted.  It  should  be  observed  whether  he  kicks, 
strikes  or  bites  when  the  girth  is  tightened.  The  reins 
should  be  taken  to  determine  whether  an  animal  is  hard  or 


HORSES,  JACKS,   JENNETS,   AND  MULES         219 

tender  in  the  mouth.  It  should  be  observed  whether  he 
frightens  at  strange  objects  when  being  driven.  A  tight- 
fitting  collar  may  be  responsible  for  rejecting  an  animal 
which  is  duly  qualified  with  proper  collar  adjustments.  The 
wind  should  be  tested  for  whistling,  roaring,  and  heaves. 
The  ear  of  the  examiner  should  be  put  to  the  throat,  the  sides 
of  the  chest,  and  the  hands  placed  on  the  flank  to  detect 
any  unnatural  sounds  or  conditions  in  breathing. 

Going  Surface.^ — The  surface  over  which  the  horse  steps 
has  a  marked  influence  on  the  character  of  his  stride,  which 
may  be  taken  advantage  of  in  the  schooling  process.  As  a 
general  rule,  heavy,  soft  or  deep  going  causes  a  high  stride, 
while  a  hard,  smooth  surface  is  conducive  to  speed.  Of 
the  speed  horses,  trotters  and  pacers  take  more  kindly  to  the 
hard  track  than  the  runners,  which  do  best  on  the  turf  or  a 
deeply  scratched  dirt  track.  The  difference  in  the  going 
will  frequently  account  for  a  horse  trotting  or  pacing,  the 
heavy  or  deep  going  causing  double-gaited  horses  to  trot, 
while  a  change  in  footing  will  shift  them  to  the  pace. 

The  common  defects  and  peculiarities  in  the  way  of 
going,  for  which  any  of  the  preceding  factors  may  be  re- 
sponsible or  tend  to  overcome  are: 

Forging. — Striking  the  ends  of  the  branches  or  the  under 
surface  of  the  shoe  of  a  forefoot  with  the  toe  of  the  hindfoot. 

Interfering. — Striking  the  supporting  leg  at  the  fetlock 
with  the  foot  of  the  striding  leg.  It  is  a  common  result  of 
the  horse  standing  in  the  base-narrow,  toe-wide  or  splay- 
footed position. 

Paddling. — An  outward  deviation  in  the  direction  of  the 
stride  of  the  foreleg,  resulting  from  the  toe-narrow  or  pigeon- 
toed  standing  position. 

Winging. — ^Exaggerated  paddling  in  horses  that  go  high, 
and,  consequently,  deviate  more  noticeably. 

Winding. — A  twisting  of  the  striding  leg,  around  in  front 
of  the  supporting  leg,  after  the  manner  of  a  rope  walker; 
most  commonly  seen  at  the  walk  in  wide-fronted  draft 
horses. 

^  Courtesy  of  C.  W.  Gay. 


220  JUDGING  JACKS,  JENNETS,   AND  MULES 

Scalping.  —  Hitting  the  front  of  the  hindfoot  above  or 
at  the  line  of  the  hair  against  the  toe  of  the  forefoot  as  it 
breaks  over. 

Speedy  Cutting. — In  which  the  spreading  trotter  at  speed 
hits  the  hindleg  above  the  scalping  mark  against  the  inside 
of  the  breaking-over  forefoot  as  he  passes. 

Cross  Firing. — Essentially  forging  in  pacers,  in  which  the 
inside  of  the  near  forefoot  and  off  hindfoot,  or  the  reverse, 
strike  in  the  air,  as  the  stride  of  the  hindleg  is  about  com- 
pleted and  the  stride  of  the  foreleg  just  begun. 

Pointing. — A  stride  in  which  extension  is  more  marked 
than  flexion,  as  is  commonly  seen  in  the  trot  of  a  Thorough- 
bred. Pointing  also  indicates  the  resting  of  one  forefoot 
in  an  advanced  position  to  relieve  the  back  tendons  while 
the  horse  is  standing. 

Dwelling. — A  scarcely  perceptible  pause  in  the  flight  of 
the  foot,  as  though  the  stride  had  been  completed  before  the 
foot  reaches  the  ground,  and  noticeable  in  actors. 

Trappy. — A  quick,  high,  but  comparatively  short  stride. 

Pounding. — Hitting  the  ground  hard  at  the  conclusion  of 
a  high  stride. 

Rolling. — Excessive  side  motion  of  the  shoulders,  usually 
confined  to  wide-fronted  horses. 


CHAPTER  X. 
JUDGING   BEEF   AND   DUAL   PURPOSE    CATTLE. 

EVOLUTION  AND  IMPORTANCE  OF  BEEF  CATTLE 
INDUSTRY. 

The  evolution  of  the  beef  cattle  industry  has  had  as  its 
basis  the  application  of  better  methods  of  breeding  and 
feeding,  the  extent  of  these  developments  having  depended 
largely  on  closer  selection  of  animals  for  these  two  purposes. 
Selection  involves  judging,  which  is  the  nucleus  of  all  live 
stock  improvement.  The  improvement  of  the  beef  cattle 
industry  through  this  agency  is  therefore  important,  both 
from  the  standpoint  of  present-day  and  future  breeders. 
Viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  large  cattle  markets  which 
are  responsible  for  directing  the  large  number  of  cattle 
passing  through  them,  the  importance  of  the  industry 
becomes  eminent. 

The  cattle  breeding  industry  is  supported  in  a  large  meas- 
ure by  the  small  breeder,  who  is  responsible  for  the  kind  and 
quality  of  cattle  placed  on  the  markets.  His  knowledge  of 
animal  form,  therefore,  should  be  exacting.  It  is  within  his 
range  of  practical  operations  to  increase  form  and  quality  to 
the  utmost.  Whether  this  is  done  will  be  determined  by  the 
knowledge  which  he  acquires  in  properly  applying  these 
agencies  of  improvement  in  the  herd.  Figures  have  been 
cited  where  the  increase  of  one  pound  on  the  total  weight 
of  every  finished  meat-producing  animal  would  mean  an 
increase  of  172,437,403  pounds  of  edible  meats.  From  this 
statement  it  is  readily  imaginable  how  the  most  modern 
methods  of  breeding,  selection  and  feeding  would  bring  a 
greatly  added  profit,  not  only  to  the  individual,  but  to  the 
beef  cattle  industry  as  a  whole.    Considered  from  the  broad 

(221) 


222      JUDGING  BEEF  AND  DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY     223 

viewpoint,  there  is  still  a  field  for  improvement  which  is 
magnified  many  times,  compared  with  the  improvement 
which  has  been  made  in  the  past. 

Beef  Cattle  Products  and  Their  Uses. — The  uses  of  beef 
cattle  products  are  varied.  In  former  years,  before  the  advent 
of  modern  abattoirs,  practically  the  only  parts  utilized  were 
the  carcass  proper,  the  hide,  and  certain  edible  parts  of  the 
viscera.  Modern  methods  of  killmg  and  handling  cattle 
products  have  made  it  possible  to  utilize  almost  every  part 
of  the  carcass.  This  has  been  of  special  importance  to  the 
producer  and  feeder,  although  in  an  indirect  way.  Their 
interest  lies  directly  in  the  improvement  of  animal  form, 
which  in  the  beef  animal  involves  a  long,  broad,  deep  body, 
and  square,  full,  compact  quarters  with  the  minimum  of 
waste  products.  The  more  highly  developed,  therefore,  that 
the  breeder  can  perfect  animal  form,  the  nearer  will  he 
approach  the  ultimate  demands  of  the  feeder  or  finisher  and 
the  butcher. 

Relation  of  Structure  to  High-priced  Cuts. — In  perfecting 
animal  form  the  breeder  is  vitally  concerned  with  the 
development  of  certain  parts.  This  development  must  be 
made,  however,  in  perfect  correlation  with  those  character- 
istics which  give  the  animal  life,  vigor,  and  thriftiness. 
The  parts  of  a  beef  animal  which  are  of  greatest  concern 
to  the  packer,  the  butcher  and  the  meat  eater  are  not 
directly  concerned  with  the  functions  of    life  and  vitality 


EXPLANATION   OF   FIG. 

90. 

1— Mouth. 

13— Neck. 

26- 

-Scrotum  or  cod, 

2— Nostrils. 

14 — Shoulder  junction. 

27- 

-Hindflanks. 

3— Face. 

15 — Top  of  shoulder. 

28- 

-Sides  or  ribs. 

4 — Ears. ' 

16— Crops. 

29- 

-Back. 

5 — Eyes. 

17 — Heart  girth. 

30- 

—Loin. 

6 — Forehead. 

18— Shoulders. 

31- 

—Loin. 

7— Poll. 

19— Fore  flank. 

33- 

—Thighs. 

8 — Horns. 

20— Knees. 

34- 

—Rump. 

9 — Jaws. 

21— Shanks. 

35- 

-Tailhead. 

.0— Throat. 

22— Feet. 

36- 

—Twist. 

.1 — Dewlap. 

23 — Dew  claws. 

37- 

-Tail. 

.2 — Brisket. 

24 — Belly  or  underline. 
25— Sheath. 

38- 

-Hocks. 

224       JUDGING  BEEF  AND  DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 


u 


2  a 

s  .s 

=>  a 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY      225 

which  govern  the  breeder's  operations.  The  butcher,  from 
his  viewpoint,  would  be  pleased  to  secure  only  those  animals 
which  possessed  the  largest  relative  proportion  of  the  highest- 
priced  cuts,  providing  his  trade  merited  such  selection.  This 
would  be  dependent  on  conditions.  The  better  the  quality 
of  the  product  which  can  be  purchased  on  an  equal-price  basis, 
the  better  the  butcher  and  his  patrons  will  be  satisfied. 

A  beef  animal  must  possess,  however,  other  attributes 
aside  from  meat-producing  qualities.  It  must  possess  con- 
stitution, capacity,  early  maturity,  quality,  and  the  requisites 
for  prime  finish.  These,  of  necessity,  call  for  development 
of  animal  form  which  in  most  cases  is  antagonistic  to  the 
production  of  the  maximum  of  the  highest  priced  cuts.  There 
must  be,  therefore,  a  close  and  direct  correlation  between 
the  attributes  of  life-giving  functions  and  meat-producing 
qualities.  The  higher  the  attributes  of  beef-productive  con- 
formation can  be  perfected  without  detracting  from  these 
life-giving  functions,  the  nearer  the  perfect  animal  will  be 
approached  from  the  standpoint  of  the  packer,  the  butcher, 
and  the  meat  eater. 

Coordination  of  Bone  and  Muscle. — The  muscular  part  of 
an  animal  and  associated  fat-producing  qualities  represent 
in  the  main  the  factors  of  importance  in  judging  a  beef 
animal.  In  order  to  know  what  lies  beneath  the  skin,  the 
examiner  must  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  bony 
development  in  its  relation  to  muscle  and  fat  formation.    A 


EXPLANATION  OF  FIG.  91. 


Skeleton  of  cow,  showing  relation  of  bone  and  muscle:  I.H.,  atlas;  7.H., 
seventh  cervical  vertebra;  I.R.,  first  thoracic  vertebra;  6.R.,  sixth  rib;  12. R., 
twelfth  thoracic  vertebra;  13. R.,  last  rib;  I.L.,  first  lumbar  vertebra;  6.L., 
last  lumbar  vertebra;  K,  sacrum;  I.S.,  first  coccygeal  vertebra;  6.K.,  sixth 
costal  cartilage;  x,  wing  of  atlas;  1,  scapula;  1',  cartilage  of  scapula;  2,  spine 
of  scapula;  3,  acromion;  i,  humerus;  i-',  external  condyle  of  humerus;  5, 
external  tuberosity  of  humerus;  6,  deltoid  tuberosity;  7,  ulna;  8,  olecranon; 
9,  radius;  10,  carpus;  11,  accessory  carpal  bone;  12,  metacarpus;  13,  pha- 
langes; H,  sternum;  ly,  manubrium;  ly,  xiphoid  cartilage;  15,  ihum; 
16,  external  angle  of  ilium;  16',  internal  angle  of  ilium;  17,  tuber  ischii; 
18,  femur;  19,  trochanter  major;  20,  patella;  21,  tibia;  21',  external  condyle 
of  tibia;  22,  tarsus;  23,  distal  end  of  fibula;  2^,  tuber  calcis;  25,  metatarsus; 
26,  phalanges.     (After  Ellenberger-Baum,  Anat.  f.  Kunstler.) 

15 


226       JUDGING  BEEF  AND  DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 

study  of  the  skeleton  and  the  outline  drawing  will  indicate 
quite  vividly  the  relation  of  these  parts.  The  head  of  the 
beef  animal  is  formed  largely  by  the  bony  development  of 
this  region.  The  variation  from  the  form  as  examined  on 
the  exterior  is  very  slight  from  what  would  be  found  on 
an  examination  of  the  bony  framework  beneath.  The  neck 
is  just  the  reverse,  being  formed  largely  by  the  muscles  con- 
stituting this  part  of  the  animal.  Meat  obtained  from  this 
region,  however,  has  a  comparatively  low  market  value. 

The  shoulders  are  also  formed  in  a  large  measure  by  the 
muscles  composing  this  part.  Although  meat  from  this 
region  has  a  comparatively  low  value,  it  is  important  that 
the  shoulders  be  smooth  and  compact.  Rough,  open,  thinly 
covered  shoulders  are  not  only  indicative  of  relatively 
low  muscle  formation,  but  they  are  otherwise  indicative 
of  coarse  quality  and  a  low  dressing  percentage.  The  body 
proper  is  outlined  largely  by  the  rib  development.  This  is 
especially  true  in  that  part  which  is  taken  off  with  the  fore- 
quarter  in  carcass  beef,  this  including  all  except  the  last  rib, 
which  is  usually  left  on  the  hindquarter.  The  hindquarters 
of  the  beef  animal  contain  a  relatively  large  proportion  of 
the  high-priced  cuts  because  there  is  a  relatively  large  pro- 
portion of  muscle  to  bone  and  the  quality  of  the  product  is 
superior  to  that  in  any  other  region.  The  region  of  the  loin, 
prime  ribs,  and  thighs  or  round  are  especially  valuable  from 
the  market  standpoint  because  of  these  factors.  A  clear 
knowledge  of  this  condition  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  have 
a  broad  understanding  of  the  value  of  the  carcass  cuts  and 
the  qualities  or  characteristics  which  indicate  them  in  the 
live  animal. 

Conformation. — The  desired  conformation  of  the  beef 
animal  should  be  self-evident  after  the  former  consideration 
of  the  main  attributes  which  give  value  to  the  correlated 
parts  of  the  structure.  The  body  should  be  long,  wide, 
deep,  and  low  set.  The  back  should  be  broad,  thus  desig- 
nating the  shape  and  turn  of  the  ribs,  which  should  be  square, 
and  extend  low  to  give  depth  of  body.  The  coupling  should 
be  short,  the  loin  broad  and  deep,  and  the  flank  low.  There 
should    be    in    all    the    close,  compact    condition  which    is 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY     227 

evidenced  by  the  smooth,  compact,  even  finish  character- 
istic of  an  animal  best  suited  to  market  demands. 

The  head  should  be  broad,  long,  and  clearly  outlined, 
the  muzzle  large,  and  the  eyes  clear  and  prominent.  The 
neck  should  be  short  and  compact  and  should  blend  evenly 
into  the  head  and  shoulders.  The  width  of  the  animal 
should  be  uniformly  developed  from  the  forequarters  to 
the  buttocks.  The  thighs  should  be  broad  and  thick,  the 
quarters  well  filled,  and  the  twist  full  and  low. 


Fig.  92.— Fat  steer, 


illustratin.n   t  liick-ilc<liiii;. 
and.  finish. 


•haracteristics,  quality 


The  most  valuable  cuts  in  the  beef  animal  are  taken  from 
the  loin,  ribs,  and  thighs.  This  makes  it  necessary  to  empha- 
size the  development  of  an  animal  in  these  regions.  Coarse- 
ness about  the  head,  neck,  and  forequarters  is  objectionable, 
as  it  still  further  reduces  the  value  of  the  already  cheapest 
cuts,  and,  in  addition,  the  value  of  the  best  cuts,  because 
of  the  close  association  with  the  value  of  these  parts. 
Such  a  condition  usually  has  associated  with  it  a  narrow 
back  and  loin,  rough,  undeveloped  quarters,  high  flanks, 
shallow  body,  and  lack  of  natural  flesh  in  general.     The 


228      JUDGING  BEEF  AND  DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 

final  disposition  of  the  beef  animal  is  on  the  block,  where 
the  crucial  test  is  made.  Lack  of  development  in  the  parts 
mentioned  cannot  fail  to  escape  the  eye  of  the  butcher  who 
pronounces  final  judgment  and  who  therefore  signifies  the 
value  of  animals,  this  being  based  directly  on  their  general 
conformation  as  above  described. 

Fleshing  Qualities. — In  judging  cattle  it  is  not  possible  to 
have  too  much  natural  flesh,  meaning  lean  meat,  providing 
it  is  properly  distributed.  This  is  largely  a  factor  which  is 
transmitted  in  the  animal  and  should  therefore  be  a  guide 
in  selecting  a  breeding  animal,  as  well  as  a  block  animal, 
from  which  the  most  desirable  returns  are  anticipated.  A 
clear  distinction  should  be  made  between  a  wealth  of  natural 
flesh  and  a  soft,  flabby  covering  which  accumulates  with 
high  feeding  and  excessive  condition.  In  examining  an 
animal  in  the  show  ring  the  judge  should  search  for  those 
points  which  will  enable  him  to  determine  between  fat 
accumulation  and  natural  flesh  development.  Patchiness, 
soft,  flabby  flesh,  rolls  and  ties,  are  very  objectionable, 
indicating  lack  of  quality  and  the  general  smoothness 
desired.  These  points  are  significant  both  in  the  breeding 
animal  and  the  feeder,  as  in  the  former  such  undesirable 
qualities  are  transmitted  and  in  the  latter  they  are  seriously 
objectionable  on  the  block.  An  animal  either  in  high  or  low 
fiesh  should  show  a  straight,  even  contour  and  be  firm  and 
uniformly  covered  with  flesh  and  fat. 

Quality. — The  flesh  of  the  beef  animal  is  one  of  the  most 
important  products  which  enters  into  the  trade  for  human 
consumption.  While  a  large  percentage  of  the  slaughtered 
beef,  especially  that  utilized  on  local  markets,  represents 
the  products  from  the  lower  grades  of  cattle,  there  are 
other  important  markets  to  be  supplied  wherein  the  standard 
of  quality  is  an  important  consideration.  This  attribute 
is  essential,  not  only  in  the  production  of  a  better  quality 
of  meat  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  trade,  but  it  is  signifi- 
cant of  a  generally  higher  price  level  for  those  producing  it. 
A  clear-cut,  refined  animal  possesses  important  attributes 
which  signify  the  presence  of  this  characteristic. 

The  head  should  show  clear-cut  character,  clean  facial  out- 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY     229 

lines,  and  a  general  expression  of  intelligence  and  thriftiness. 
The  bone  should  be  smooth,  hard,  and  dense,  the  skin  of 
medium  thickness,  pliable,  and  of  a  healthy  color,  and  the 
hair  fine,  straight,  and  uniformly  covering  the  body.  The 
shoulder  development  is  important,  as  roughness,  openness 
or  coarseness  are  indicative  of  lack  in  general  refinement  and, 
therefore,  quality  characterization.  Large  bone,  undefined 
joints  and  a  coarse-textured  horn,  are  likewise  indicative  of 


Tk..  \Jo.—Y 


.>iccr  ili-iliajjL-d  aud  lackiii 
(Photograph  by  author.) 


ill  natural  flesh. 


inferior  quality.  The  presence  or  absence  of  these  character- 
istics in  general  determines  the  degree  of  quality  or  general 
refinement  which  an  animal  possesses.  A  close,  compact, 
symmetrical  development  throughout,  which  condition  is 
indicated  by  head  and  facial  development,  bone  formation, 
and  the  condition  of  the  skin  and  hair,  is  indicative  of  an 
animal  qualified  to  fulfill  the  requirements  of  the  breeder, 
feeder,  or  the  butcher. 

Constitution. — Indications  of  constitution  are  not  only  im- 
portant to  the  breeder  because  of  hereditary  qualifications, 


230      JUDGING  BEEF  AND  DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 

but  also  to  the  feeder  in  preparing  an  animal  for  market.  It 
has  been  mentioned  that  there  are  certain  portions  of  the 
animal  which  are  equally  important  from  the  viewpoint  of 
the  producer,  the  feeder,  and  the  butcher.  Constitution  is 
one  of  these  attributes  which  must  be  possessed  not  only 
to  reproduce  strong,  thrifty,  individuals,  but  also  to 
render  the  feeding  animal  of  greater  significance  in  the 
process  of  market  preparation.  Weak  constitution  and 
low  vitality  are  the  bane  of  both  the  breeder  and  the 
feeder. 

The  indications  of  constitution  are  significant  in  the 
head  and  chest  development.  The  head  should  be  strong, 
clean  and  impressive,  the  nostrils  large  and  open,  the  muzzle 
large  and  broad,  the  forehead  broad  and  the  chest  full  and 
deep.  This  insures  a  large  girth  measurement  within  which 
the  vital  organs  have  ample  opportunity  to  perform  their 
normal  functions.  If  for  any  reason  the  natural  process 
of  these  organs  is  interfered  with  it  results  in  low  vitality. 
Such  a  condition  is  especially  marked  about  the  head.  The 
eyes  become  dull  and  sunken,  the  skin  dry  and  harsh,  and 
the  hair  deficient  in  the  normal  amount  of  secretion.  There 
is  a  characteristic  appearance  in  any  animal  possessing 
strong  constitutional  development.  Animals  possessing  these 
attributes  have  strong,  vigorous  bodies,  thus  insuring  a 
robust  animal  capable  of  reproducing  or  finishing  for  the 
block  in  a  most  satisfactory  manner. 

Nervous  Development.- — The  evidences  of  nerve  develop- 
ment are  very  strikingly  portrayed  in  comparing  the  beef 
arid  dairy  animal.  The  former  usually  maintains  a  quiet, 
satisfied  attitude  regardless  of  environment.  The  beef 
animal  is  thus  described  as  being  lymphatic  or  comparatively 
low  in  nerve  force  or  nerve  development.  In  the  dairy 
animal  there  is  an  alertness  and  activity  very  different  from 
that  exemplified  in  the  beef  animal.  A  highly  developed, 
nervous  organization  portrays  activity  such  as  that  mani- 
fested by  the  dairy  animal  in  utilizing  the  feed  to  the  best 
advantage  for  milk-productive  purposes.  The  beef  animal, 
on  the  contrary,  having  a  low  nervous  development  uses  the 
food  for  storing  fat  on  the  body.    The  two  conditions  are 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  BEEF  CATTLE  IXDUSTRY     231 

strikingly  significant  of  what  animals  will  do  when  placed  in 
their  respective  conditions  for  work. 

Weight  and  Maturity. — From  the  standpoint  of  the  breeder, 
a  beef  animal  matures  when  three  years  of  age.  However, 
the  same  animal  may  be  matured  when  from  twelve  months 
or  thereabout  to  two  years  of  age  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
feeder  and  market  requirements.  Animals  finished  at  the 
former  age  or  somewhat  older,  go  on  the  market  as  baby  beef. 
This  is  a  very  desirable  method  of  finishing  these  animals, 
especially  if  the  dealer  caters  to  a  fancy  trade.  Whether 
this  is  a  wise  practice  is  dependent  on  the  feeder  and  his 
markets  largely.  While  this  is  a  problem  which  does  not 
concern  the  judge  of  animal  form,  it  is  important  to  have 
a  clear  understanding  of  the  attributes  of  early  maturity 
in  animals  used  in  the  various  fields  of  the  breeder,  the 
feeder,  and  the  packer.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  breeder 
proper,  maturity  has  reference  to  the  time  when  an  animal 
attains  its  normal  weight  and  development.  This  is  largely 
a  matter  of  age,  methods  of  maintenance,  and  care  and 
handling,  problems  which  do  not  aftect  the  consumer  of 
the  product. 

One  of  the  important  requisites  of  a  beef  animal  is  that 
they  show  in  their  structural  make-up  an  inclination  to 
develop  rapidly  and  mature  at  an  early  age.  This  is  im- 
portant, either  in  the  breeding  or  feeding  animal.  Weight 
for  age  in  either  case  is  important.  Late-maturing  qualities 
are  very  objectionable  and  should  be  bred  out  by  the  selec- 
tion of  animals  having  an  inclination  to  develop  their  normal 
size  at  an  early  period  in  life.  Evidences  of  this  character- 
itsic  are  indicated  in  a  broad,  deep  muzzle,  a  wdde,  intelligent 
head,  a  bright,  placid  eye,  a  deep,  broad,  chest;  a  square, 
compact  body;  full  hindquarters  with  compactness,  sym- 
metry, and  correlation  of  parts  throughout.  The  reverse 
of  these  conditions  is  indicative  of  late  maturity,  a  con- 
dition which  not  only  makes  the  growing  of  beef  cattle 
unprofitable  but  hinders  as  well  the  production  of  the 
highest  class  of  beef  products.  Normal  development  at  an 
early  age  is  not  only  important  to  the  breeder,  but  to  the 
feeder,  and  indirectly  to  the  consumer,  as  these  character- 


232       JUDGING  BEEF   AND   DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY     233 

istics  indicate  quality  in  carcass  beef.  Animals  produced 
with  these  attainments  will  not  only  be  more  profitable  to 
the  producer  and  feeder,  but  more  satisfactory  to  the  trade. 

Capacity. — The  usefulness  of  a  beef  animal  is  measured 
by  its  power  to  consume  feed  and  convert  it  into  the  proper 
material  for  body  maintenance  and  development.  The 
breeding  animal  should  have  capacity  as  applied  both  to 
reproduction  and  body  development.  This  condition,  there- 
fore, should  be  doubly  emphasized  in  such  animals.  The 
capacity  is  dependent  largely  on  the  body  development, 
the  blood  supply,  and  the  health  and  vigor  manifested.  A 
narrow,  shallow-bodied  animal  or  one  with  an  insufficient 
blood  supply  cannot  be  healthy  and  vigorous,  and  conse- 
quently cannot  have  the  capacity  for  consuming  and  manu- 
facturing feed  into  the  ultimate  material  needed  for  body 
growth  and  development.  Capacity  is  cjuite  closely  correlated 
with  constitution  and  the  general  conformation  of  the  animal. 
The  one  condition  should  be  indicative  of  the  other.  Lack 
of  capacity  is  usually  associated  with  lack  of  constitution 
and  reproductive  development.  Its  application  is  far-reach- 
ing in  studying  animals  from  these  two  viewpoints. 

Condition. — Condition  is  significant  of  the  quantity  of  fat 
deposited  in  the  muscular  tissues  and  over  the  body  of 
an  animal.  While  breeding  stock  is  frequently  placed  in 
high  condition  for  the  show  ring  it  is  generally  recognized 
that  when  a  breeding  herd  is  maintained  in  moderate  con- 
dition the  results  are  more  satisfactory.  Market  animals, 
however,  should  be  fitted  in  high  condition,  although  many 
of  them  are  marketed  without  having  acquired  sufficient 
fat  to  make  them  sell  most  advantageously.  A  good  quality 
of  meat  is  obtained  only  when  the  fat  is  properly  interspersed 
through  the  muscular  tissues  and  over  the  outside  of  the 
carcass.  Animals  may  be  overfinished,  however,  which 
detracts  greatly  from  their  value.  This  condition  is  more 
frequently  met  with  in  the  show  ring. 

The  indications  of  finish  or  condition  are  quite  numerous; 
however,  there  are  certain  fixed  attributes  which  are  indicative 
of  this  qualification.  A  finished  animal  has  a  round,  smooth, 
plump  body  in  contradistinction  to  the  thin  body,  showing  a 


234       JUDGING  BEEF  AND  DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 

decided  lack  of  muscle  and  fat  development.  The  most  char- 
acteristic specific  indications  are  a  fulness  at  the  tongue  root, 
a  well-filled  shoulder  vein,  a  low  and  well-filled  flank,  and  a 
firm,  well-filled  cod  or  purse. 


Fig.  95. — Showing  a  beef  carcass  from  the  viewpoint  of  the  butcher 
(Courtesy  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.) 


Dressing  Percentages. — The  dressing  percentage  of  carcass 
beef  varies  from  45  to  65  per  cent.  Animals  occasionally 
dress  as  high  as  70  per  cent,  or  over.    Such  animals,  however. 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY     235 

are  the  result  of  exceptionally  high  fitting  which  does  not 
always  involve  a  profitable  transaction.  The  dressing  per- 
centage of  an  animal  varies  with  the  type,  age,  conformation, 
quality,  and  finish  or  condition. 

Considerable  stress  should  be  placed  on  the  probable  out- 
come of  an  animal  on  the  block.  However,  high  finish  does 
not  always  indicate  that  an  animal  will  be  profitable  from  the 
block  standpoint.  This  is  dependent  on  the  ultimate  dress- 
ing percentage.  An  animal  to  dress  well  should  be  square, 
low  set,  deep,  broad  in  the  body,  compact  and  smooth, 
with  a  relatively  large  amount  of  the  weight  placed  in  the 
regions  which  sell  for  the  highest  market  price.  A  good 
feeding  animal  should  have  capacity,  yet  with  all  it  should 
be  trim  and  free  from  excess  offal.  A  heavy-shouldered 
animal,  low  in  the  back,  and  inclined  to  be  paunchy  will  not 
dress  a  high  percentage.  Such  a  condition  is  usually  indica- 
tive of  flat  ribs,  a  large  paunch,  and  excess  weight  in  the  waste 
or  cheap  parts.  Animals  making  the  highest  dressing  per- 
centage conform  to  the  block  or  rectangular,  low  set,  broad, 
arched  rib,  deep-bodied  sort. 

Marbling  of  Meat. — The  marbling  of  meat  is  indicative 
of  the  interspersion  of  fat  between  the  muscular  tissues. 


EXPANATION  OF  FIG.  95. 

1,  2,  3— Round.  9— Flank. 

4,  5,  6— Loin.  10,  11— Plate. 

7— Rib.  12— Shank. 

8— Chuck.  13 — Suet. 

1 — Hind  shank.  6 — Pinbone  loin. 

2 — Round,  R  and  S,  off.  5,  6 — Flatbone  loin. 

3 — Rump.  10 — Navel. 

4,  5 — Loin  end.  11 — Brisket. 

1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  9 — Hindquarters. 
7,  8,  10,  11,  12— Forequarter. 
7,  8— Back. 
7,  10— Piece. 
8,  11,  12— Kosher  chuck. 
8,  10,  11,  12— Triangle. 

a — Aitch-bone.  e — Chine-bones. 

h — Rump-bone  / — "Buttons." 

c — Crotch.  g — Skirt. 

d — Cod  h — Breast-bone. 


236      JUDGING  BEEF  AND  DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 


This  condition  is  reached  when  an  animal  is  properly  finished 
for  the  block.     While  one  animal  or  one  breed  may  marble 


Fig.  96. — Porterhouse  cut,  showing  marbling  and  desirable  amount  of 
fat  covering. 


Fig.  97. — Prime  or  standing  rib,  including  portion  between  loin  and  chuck. 


better  than  another,  the  condition  is  necessary  to  give  meat 
its  best  quality.      In  conjunction  with  the  marbling  there 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY     237 


should  be  a  uniform  pad  of  fat  over  the  outside  of  the  body 
to  protect  the  meat  and  retain  its  succulence  when  in  the 
dressed-carcass  condition.  It  requires  in  addition  a  certain 
amount  of  fatty  tissue  to  add  succulence  and  flavor  to  meat. 


\.\'« 


"^  J  . 

4  I    , 


ffump 

I       ffomp . 
Round   rump  S  shank    off 

£,         Round  ^fe^k,  firjf  cu/ 

J-/J  ITOLind  steaks. 

14  Raand  Sfcok.  /asf  cut. 

15  Kni/cf</e  ^oop  bone 
/o       Pot  roast 

f^ind   shank. 

IZ/.^Joup   bones 
IS      fiocA  soup  bone 


Loitv 


3u/t-end  sirlom  Jteok. 
Wedge  -  bor?e    3ir/oin  j/eak  ■ 


J;  4     Pound  -bone 
5,6    Double -bone 
7      Hip  -bone 

S      /i/p  -bone    Rarterhause  .steo 
9-15  Recjulcir  •• 

~  /6-ia  Club  sreak^ 

FLAt/K 

I         Flonk  sfeoM 


f^OR£  QUARTER 
Rib 

I  ll'-l!  A  121"  R.'b  roast. 

£.         S'JiS  JOtt- 

J  I'i  &  B'i> 

4  gU  -  - 

Chuck 

I         5ti  R/b  roasf 

£-9    Chuck    st^oMs 

10 -IJ  Pot   roasts 

/-3-       Clod 

/.:>:       Nack 

PLAT£ 

I         I}ri.sMet 
3,-4-    R,b  end.', 

fXtflE    .SHANK 

I        .3tew 

£  Knuckle   .^oup    hone. 

J-6   3oup  bones 


■  RETAIL  •  CUT3  ■  OF ■  BEEF ■ 


Fig.  98. — Retail  cuts  of  beef.    (Couitesy  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment 

Station.) 

Percentage  of  Different  Cuts  of  Beef. — Judging  a  beef 
animal  accurately  for  a  given  purpose  necessitates  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  location  and  relation  of  the  various  regions  of  the 
animal.     These  regions  are  defined  by  certain  rather  uni- 


238      JUDGING  BEEF  AND  DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 

versa!  market  terms  which  are  designated  in  the  following 
tables.  While  the  way  in  which  a  carcass  is  cut  may  influence 
the  value  of  the  various  market  cuts,  the  value  of  the  sum 
total  will  not  be  materially  altered.  Most  every  large  city 
has  its  method  of  cutting  a  beef  carcass  for  wholesale  and 
retail  purposes. 

The  following  table  is  a  record  of  results  obtained  from  a 
cutting  test  and  shows  the  percentage  of  "Chicago  cut" 
meat  with  square-cut  chucks.  This  shows  the  different  cuts 
which  are  obtained  from  a  carcass  and  the  proportionate 
amount  of  each  obtained,  based  on  the  total  weight: 

Cuts.  Per  cent. 

Chucks 28.00 

Rounds -.      .      .  23.00 

Navel 8.00 

Flanks 2.00 

Flank  steaks .50 

Kidney -25 

Ribs   ■ 10.00 

Loins 15.00 

No.  2  suet .50 

No.  1  suet 3.00 

Shanks 4.00 

Brisket 5.00 

Necks .75 

Total 100.00 

It  is  thus  seen  from  this  table  that  the  two  most  valuable 
parts,  the  loins  and  ribs,  constitute  only  one-fourth  of  the 
total  weight  of  the  carcass.  The  rounds  and  chucks  each 
constitute  approximately  one-fourth  the  total  weight  of 
the  carcass,  leaving  the  other  one-fourth  to  be  distributed 
among  the  lowest  priced  cuts  which  include  the  navel, 
flanks,  shanks,  neck,  and  brisket. 

The  following  table  shows  in  a  more  condensed  form  the 
percentage  of  the  parts  of  the  beef  animal  grouped  more 
nearly  according  to  their  market  value.  This  table  is 
representative  of  the  cuts  made  Philadelphia  style: 

Cuts.  Per  cent. 

Rump  and  round 34 .  00 

Rattler  (Chuck,  plate,  brisket  and  shank)       .            .  44.00 

Ribs  and  loins 22.00 

Total 100.00 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY     239 


Fig.  99. — Sirloin  or  loin  end. 


Fig.   100.— Round  representing  the  principal  thigh  cut. 


240     JUDGING  BEEF  AND  DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 

This  grouping  represents  three  rather  distinct  portions  of 
the  beef  animal.  The  rattler  which  includes  the  chuck,  plate, 
brisket,  and  shank,  includes  the  cheaper  and  less  desirable 


Fig.  101. — Chuck  cut  taken  off  between  fifth  and  sixth  ribs.     (Photograph 
by  author.) 


parts  of  the  animal.  The  rump  and  round,  combined 
constitute  about  one-third  the  total  weight,  while  the  ribs 
and  loins  combined  constitute  slightly  less  than  one-fourth 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY     241 

of  the  total  weight.  It  is  thus  seen  that  the  proportionate 
amounts  of  the  parts  designated  in  the  two  tables  vary 
somewhat  with  the  method  of  making  the  cuts.  Based  on 
the  universal  practice  of  cutting  meat,  the  former  table 
represents  more  nearly  the  usual  method  of  preparing  or 
cutting  the  beef  animal  for  block-distribution  purposes. 

Determination  of  Age. — Like  the  horse,  the  age  of  cattle 
can  be  determined  by  observing  the  eruption  and  appearance 
of  the  milk  and  permanent  incisor  teeth.  While  the  age 
can  thus  be  determined  very  satisfactorily,  it  is  only  in  rather 
exceptional  instances  that  the  teeth  are  used  as  an  index  in 
arriving  at  the  age  attained.     The  teeth  of  cattle  are  some- 


FiG.  102. — Chucks,  showing  some  of  the  cheaper  cuts  of  beef. 
(Photograph  by  author.) 

what  different  from  those  of  the  horse,  as  the  incisors,  eight 
in  number,  appear  only  in  the  lower  jaw.  The  teeth  are 
not  firmly  imbedded  in  the  jaw  as  in  the  horse,  but  are  rather 
set  in  cartilage,  so  as  to  allow  of  rather  free  movement. 
As  the  teeth  are  not  opposed  by  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw, 
this  is  necessary.  Instead  of  having  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw, 
it  is  provided  with  a  pad  or  cushion  for  crushing  the  feed 
when  opposed  by  the  incisors  in  the  lower  jaw. 

The  two  sets  of  incisor  teeth  appear  in  cattle  in  the  follow- 
ing order,  and  it  is  by  this  eruption  and  appearance  that  the 
age  may  be  determined  up  to  about  the  ten-year  stage. 
At  birth  the  calf  usually  has  four  incisors,  the  third  pair 
appearing  about  the  tenth  or  twelfth  day,  and  the  corner 
pair  from  the  latter  time  up  to  the  thirtieth  day  or  there- 
16 


242      JUDGING  BEEF  AND  DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 

abouts.  The  permanent  central  incisors  appear  from  eigh- 
teen to  twenty  months,  the  first  intermediates  at  twenty-four 
to  thirty  months,  the  second  intermediates  at  thirty-six 
to  forty-two  months,  and  the  corners  from  forty-five  to 
fifty-four  months.  These  are  designated  as  the  one,  two, 
three,  and  four-year  stages. 

At  five  years  the  central  incisors  have  begun  to  wear  and 
at  six  years  they  are  worn  level.  At  this  stage  both  pairs 
of  the  intermediates  are  partly  worn  and  the  corners  have 
commenced  to  wear.  At  seven  years  the  first  pair  of  inter- 
mediates is  worn  completely  and  the  second  pair  is  worn 
considerably.  When  the  eight-year  stage  is  reached  the 
tables  of  all  the  teeth  are  worn  level  and  a  concavity  appears 
in  the  central  incisors.  At  nine  years  this  concavity  appears 
in  the  first  intermediates  and  at  ten  years  in  the  second 
intermediates. 

From  this  stage  the  age  may  be  determined  by  the  general 
condition  of  the  animal,  by  the  general  alterations  which 
occur  in  the  teeth,  or  by  the  horns  as  described  in  the  fol- 
lowing paragraph : 

Indication  of  Age  hy  Horns. — The  age  of  cattle  possessing 
horns  may  be  determined  by  the  rings  which  appear  at  the 
base.  The  first  ring  appears  at  about  three  years  of  age. 
Each  year  a  new  ring  develops,  thus  indicating  the  age  by 
adding  two  to  the  number  of  rings  which  are  in  evidence. 
One  ring,  for  example,  indicates  a  three-year-old  and  two 
rings  a  four-year-old  animal. 

Structural  Form  and  Examination. — The  following  attri- 
butes of  form  are  of  special  significance  in  determining  the 
qualifications  of  beef-producing  animals.  These  apply 
with  equal  significance  to  both  breeding  and  fat  animals, 
with  the  exception  of  the  sex  characteristics,  which  should 
be  developed  in  the  former. 

Head. — ^The  head  of  the  beef  animal  should  be  broad, 
deep,  and  have  length  in  proportion,  this  being  a  good 
indication  of  thriftiness  and  feeding  capacity.  There  should 
be  good  width  between  the  eyes,  thus  showing  intelligence. 
The  angle  of  the  jaw  should  be  wide  to  allow  free  respira- 
tory action.    The  head  should  be  neat,  trim,  and  the  general 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY     243 

expression  should  indicate  intelligence.  A  well-formed  head 
is  indicative  of  various  attributes  such  as  quality,  feeding 
capacity,  intelligence,  breed  t^^pe,  and  general  refinement. 

Eyes. — The  eyes  should  be  large,  clear,  and  bright,  this 
being  a  good  indication  of  constitution,  healthfulness,  and 
breeding  capacity.  A  small,  sunken  eye  indicates  low  vitality 
and  possibly  disease. 

Ears. — The  ears  should  be  medium  in  size  and  covered 
with  fine,  mossy  hair.  A  medium-sized  ear  with  fine,  silky 
hair  is  indicative  of  quality,  the  opposite  condition  showing 
coarseness  and  lack  of  refinement. 

Horns. — In  horned  breeds  the  horns  should  be  fine  in  texture 
and  free  from  a  rough,  dry,  scaly  condition. 

Poll. — The  width  of  the  poll  is  dependent  upon  the  natural 
presence  or  absence  of  horns.  In  polled  breeds  there  is  a  ten- 
dency for  the  poll  to  assume  a  comparatively  narrow,  pointed 
condition. 

Muzzle. — The  muzzle  should  be  broad  and  deep,  as  the 
size  of  it  is  indicative  of  constitution  and  capacity.  A 
small,  pointed  muzzle  is  characteristic  of  an  animal  with 
low  vitality  and  faulty  breeding  or  feeding  qualities.  The 
nostrils  should  be  large  and  open.  The  muzzle  should 
broaden  toward  the  extremity,  such  a  condition  indicating 
strong,  vigorous  breeding  and  feeding  capacity. 

Neck. — The  neck  should  be  short,  broad,  deep,  and 
blend  evenly  and  smoothly  into  the  shoulders.  Coarseness 
indicated  by  the  presence  of  loose  folds  about  the  neck, 
dewlap  or  brisket  is  very  objectionable.  Unnecessary 
appendages  of  this  character  decrease  the  dressing  per- 
centage. The  junction  of  4he  neck  with  the  head  should 
be  smooth,  the  throat-latch  being  free  from  loose  folds 
of  skin.  The  junction  at  the  neck  should  show  smooth- 
ness and  refinement.  The  crest  should  be  absent  in  the 
female. 

FoREQUARTEES. — The  forcquartcrs  include  the  shoulders, 
shoulder  vein,  brisket,  feet,  and  legs.  The  shoulders  should 
be  broad,  smooth,  and  evenly  laid  in,  there  being  no  tendency 
to  openness  or  a  light-fleshing  quality.  Undue  prominence 
of  the  shoulder-blades  and  the  resulting  open  formation  indi- 


244      JUDGING  BEEF  AND  DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 

cate  coarseness  of  quality.  The  smoothness  and  compactness 
of  the  top  of  the  shoulder  should  likewise  characterize  the 
sides  of  same.  The  shoulders  should  blend  evenly  into  the 
body  proper,  there  being  no  tendency  to  depressions  in  the 
crops  or  flanks. 

Shoulder  Vein. — The  shoulder  vein  should  be  full,  thus 
giving  smoothness  of  neck  and  shoulder  development. 

Brisket.— rThe  brisket  should  be  trim  and  neat,  extending 
forward  sufficiently  to  give  the  animal  proper  conformation, 
although  this  should  not  be  extreme. 

Legs. — The  legs  should  be  short,  straight,  and  strong,  with 
dense,  hard  bone,  this  condition  indicating  quality.  They 
should  set  well  apart  and  directly  under  the  body.  If  they 
are  set  too  close  together  it  is  indicative  of  a  narrow  chest 
and  thus  weak  constitution  and  vitality.  The  feet  should 
be  medium  in  size,  and  the  animal  should  stand  well  up  on 
the  toes. 

Body. — The  body  proper  includes  the  chest,  back,  ribs, 
loin,  underline,  and  flanks.  The  chest  should  be  broad,  deep, 
and  full.  There  is  a  marked  difference  in  the  chest  of  the 
beef  and  the  dairy  animal.  In  the  former,  the  width  should 
be  the  same  through  the  crops  and  in  the  flank  region,  the 
latter  having  an  angular  formation  at  the  top,  thus  necessi- 
tating greater  width  on  the  floor  to  obtain  the  desired  chest 
capacity.  There  should  be  no  depression  whatever  back  of 
the  shoulders.  Full  conformation  in  this  region  gives  the  beef 
animal  the  most  desirable  attainments,  from  the  butcher's 
standpoint.  A  high  flank  is  objectionable.  Any  noticeable 
decrease  in  the  body  in  the  chest  or  flank  region  is  indicative 
either  of  low  vitality  or  undesirable  feeding  qualities. 

The  value  of  a  breeding  or  feeding  animal  is  influenced 
largely  by  the  development  of  the  bark  because  of  the 
relatively  large  proportion  of  high-priced  cuts  coming  from 
it.  It  should  be  straight,  broad,  and  uniformly  carried  out 
from  the  shoulders  to  the  hindquarters.  The  amount  and 
character  of  natural  flesh  is  important.  The  back  should 
be  characterized  by  smooth,  firm,  uniform  covering  through- 
out. A  low,  weak  back  is  objectionable,  as  such  a  condition 
is  associated  with  a  lack  of  form  and  symmetry  in  general 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY     245 

and  otherwise  indicates  a  low  dressing  percentage.  Often 
an  animal  so  characterized  is  paunchy,  this  condition  being 
doubly  antagonistic  to  beef-productive  capacity. 

The  rihs  should  be  long,  arched,  and  thickly  and  smoothly 
fleshed.  They  should  be  well  sprung,  coming  squarely 
from  the  back  hone  and  extend  low  to  give  depth  of  body 
and  its  accompanying  capacity.  Flat  ribs  are  very  objection- 
able, usually  being  associated  with  animals  of  low  vitality 
and  unthriftiness. 

The  loin  contains  the  highest-priced  cuts  of  the  beef 
carcass.  It  should  be  broad,  long,  level,  and  thickly  fleshed, 
thus  giving  the  largest  proportionate  amount  of  meat  from 
this  region. 

The  underline  should  be  straight,  trim,  and  parallel  with 
the  top  line.  The  fiends  should  be  full,  even,  and  extend  low. 

HiXDQUARTEKS. — The  hindquarters  include  the  hips,  rump, 
thighs,  twist,  and  legs.  The  hips  should  be  broad,  smooth, 
and  level.  The  rump  should  be  long,  wide,  the  tail  head 
smooth  and  level,  and  the  pin-bones  wide  apart.  The  animal 
should  be  smooth  and  firm  throughout  this  region.  The 
thighs  should  be  broad,  deep,  and  full,  carrying  well  down 
to  the  hocks.  Long,  narrow,  incurving  thighs  in  the  beef 
animal  are  seriously  objectionable.  Such  an  animal  should 
possess  just  the  opposite  condition,  being  fully  developed 
from  every  viewpoint.  The  twist  should  be  deep  and  full.  A 
high  twist  is  indicative  of  inferior  fleshing  qualities.  A  short 
hindquarter  with  a  drooping  rump,  and  rough,  prominent 
development  otherwise  is  extremely  objectionable. 

The  legs  should  be  wide  apart,  straight,  short,  and  the 
shanks  fine  and  smooth.  The  bone  should  possess  quality, 
as  indicated  by  density  and  texture.  The  feet  should  be 
of  medium  size,  well  shaped,  and  the  animal  should  stand 
well  up  on  the  toes. 


246      JUDGING  BEEF  AND  DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 

Score  Card  for  Beef  Cattle. 

General  Appearance— 40  Points.  Perfect  score. 

Weight:  score  according  to  age 6 

Form:  straight  topline  and  underline;  deep,  broad,  low  set, 

stylish 10 

Quality:  firm  handling,  hair  fine;  pliable  skin;  dense  bone; 

evenly  fleshed 10 

Condition:  deep,  even  covering  of  firm  flesh,   especially  in 

regions  of  valuable  cuts 10 

Temperament:  lymphatic,  inclined  to  fatten 4 

Head  and  Neck — 7  Points. 

Muzzle:  broad;  mouth  large;  jaw  wide;  nostrils  large 

Eyes:  large,  clear,  placid 

Face:  short,  quiet  expression 

Forehead:  broad,  full 

Ears:  medium  size,  fine  texture 

Horns:  fine  texture,  oval,  medium  size 

Neck:  thick,  short;  throat  clean 

FoREQUARTERS — 8  Points. 

Shoulder  vein:  full 2 

Shoulder:  covered  with  flesh,  compact  on  top,  smooth  .         2 

Brisket:  advanced,  breast  wide 1 

Dewlap:  skin  not  too  loose  and  drooping 1 

Legs:  straight,  short;  arm  full;  shank  fine,  smooth      ...         2 

Body— 32  Points. 

Chest:  fuU,  deep,  wide;  girth  large;  crops  full 4 

Ribs:  long,  arched,  thickly  fleshed 8 

Back:  broad,  straight,  smooth,  even 10 

Loin:  thick,  broad 8 

Flank:  full,  even  with  underline 2 

Hindquarters — 13  Points. 

Hips:  smoothly  covered;  distance  apart  in  proportion  with 

other  parts 2 

Rump:  long,  wide,  even,  tail  head  smooth,  not  patchy  .         2 

Pin-bones:  not  prominent,  far  apart 1 

Thighs:  f uU,  deep,  wide 2 

Twist:  deep,  plump 2 

Purse:  full,  indicating  fleshiness 2 

Legs:  straight,  short,  shank  fine,  smooth 2 

Total       .      .      .     • 100 

Breed  Characteristics. — The  several  breeds  of  beef  and 
dual  purpose  cattle  are  all  characterized  by  rather  significant 
marks  of  size,  color,  form,  and  adaptation.  The  most 
significant  points  are  described  in  the  following: 

Shorthorn. — The  Shorthorn  breed  of  cattle  originated  in 
the  counties  of  York,  Durham,  and  Northumberland,  Eng- 
land. The  breed  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  historically 
of  any  of  the  beef  breeds.     The  breed  is  characterized  by 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY      247 

three  distinct  colors,  red,  white,  and  roan.  Specimens  of  the 
breed  may  be  soHd  red,  soHd  white,  or  a  combination  of 
the  two,  forming  large  red-and-white  body  colors,  the  former 
predominating,  or  an  intermingling  of  these  two  colors,  thus 
giving  the  characteristic  roan.  The  shades  of  roan  vary 
from  light  to  dark.  The  weight  of  mature  males  ranges 
from  1800  to  2200  pounds  on  the  average,  although  these 
weights  are  often  exceeded.  The  horns  are  comparatively 
short,  usually  curving  forward  and  slightly  downward.  The 
conformation  of  the  animal  adheres  closely  to  the  beef  type, 


Fig.   103.— Shorthorn  bull. 

although  there  are  two  rather  sharply  defined  types.  The 
Scotch  type  of  Shorthorn  conforms  closest  to  the  beef  type, 
the  Bates  type  representing  an  animal  of  both  beef  and  milk- 
producing  qualities.  The  Shorthorn  ranks  high  in  quality, 
and  docility,  and  "  nicks"  well  with  common  cattle.  The 
breed  is  adapted  especially  to  rich  pasture  lands,  although  it 
has  a  wide  adaptation.  The  breed  shows  unusual  refinement 
and  breed  character. 

Polled  Durham. — The  Polled  Durham  breed  of  cattle 
is  designated  as  single  or  double  standard,  according  to 
origin.  The  aim  is  to  breed  in  them  all  of  the  characteris- 
tics of    Shorthorns  excepting  the  horns.     The  head  is  the 


248      JUDGING  BEEF  AND  DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 

same  as  that  of  the  Shorthorn  except  the  poll,  which  is  gently 
rounded  at  the  crown.  The  single  standard  Shorthorn  was 
the  first  type  of  hornless  Shorthorn  in  America.  The  breed 
is  the  result  of  crossing  pure-bred  Shorthorn  bulls  on  native 
cows  of  hornless  character.  Animals  bred  in  this  way  are 
eligible  for  registration  only  in  the  Polled  Durham  Herd- 
book.  Cattle  of  this  breeding,  while  having  Shorthorn  char- 
acteristics, do  not  possess  strong  Shorthorn  qualifications. 

Double  Standard  Polled  Durhams  are  descendants  from 
the  cow,  Oakwood  Gwynne  the  Fourth,  which  was  a  regis- 


I'l...    104.— Pulled  Durban 


Hill. 


tered  Shorthorn  cow.  This  cow  was  practically  polled  and 
when  bred  to  Seventh  Duke  of  Hillhurst,  produced  twin 
female  calves  with  polled  heads.  Animals  descended  from 
this  origin  are  known  as  double  standard,  as  they  are  eligible 
to  registration,  both  in  the  Polled  Durham  Herdbook  and 
the  American  Shorthorn  Herdbook.  Animals  of  the  Polled 
Durham  breed  should  have  the  color  and  other  character- 
istics of  the  Shorthorn  breed.  While  not  bred  to  as  high 
state  of  perfection  as  the  breed  from  which  they  descended, 
some  excellent  individuals  have  been  produced,  showing  the 
true  polled  character. 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY     249 

Aberdeen-Angus.  —  The  Aberdeen- Angus  breed  originated 
in  Scotland  in  the  counties  of  Aberdeen,  Kincardine,  and 
Forfar.  The  breed  is  characterized  by  the  absence  of  horns 
and  a  sohd  black  color,  with  slight  exceptions  as  given  in  the 
standard  of  excellence.  The  weight  of  the  males  ranges 
from  1700  to  2000  pounds  on  an  average,  many  indi- 
viduals exceeding  this  weight.  In  general  conformation  the 
breed  is  quite  typical  of  the  characteristics  of  the  beef  ani- 
mal. The  form  is  inclined  to  be  more  cylindrical  than  in  the 
Shorthorn  or  Hereford.  In  quality  and  dressing  percentages 
the  breed   ranks  high,  having   obtained   numerous  prizes. 


Fig.   105 — Aberdeen-Angus  bull. 

both  on  foot  and  on  the  block  for  the  possession  of  these 
qualifications.  The  form  is  compact,  low  set,  and  animals 
of  the  breed  are  characterized  by  a  strong,  vigorous  con- 
stitution. The  breed  ranks  only  fair  in  milking  qualities, 
not  comparing  favorably  with  the  Shorthorn  in  this  respect. 
The  possession  of  the  unusually  well-developed  beef-produc- 
ing qualities  has  been  antagonistic  to  this  end.  In  character 
and  general  refinement  the  breed  ranks  high.  The  disposition 
is  inclined  to  be  nervous.  The  body  of  the  Aberdeen- 
Angus  has  unusual  depth,  and  the  breed  as  a  whole  possesses 
unusually  early  maturing  qualities. 


250      JUDGING  BEEF  AND  DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 

Standard  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of  Points  for  Aberdeen- 
Angus  Cattle. 

Bull. 

Points. 

Color. — Black.  White  is  objectionable,  except  on  the  under- 
line behind  the  navel,  and  there  only  to  a  moderate  extent;  a 
white  scrotum  is  most  undesirable 3 

Head. — Forehead  broad;  face  slightly  prominent,  and  tapering 
toward  the  nose;  muzzle  fine;  nostrils  wide  and  open;  distance 
from  eyes  to  nostrils  of  moderate  length;  eyes  mild,  full  and 
expressive,  indicative  of  good  disposition;  ears  of  good  medium 
size,  well  set  and  well  covered  with  hair;  poll  well  defined,  and 
without  any  appearance  of  horns  or  scurs;  jaws  clean     ...        10 

Throat. — Clean,  without  any  development  of  loose  flesh  underneath        3 

Neck. — Of  medium  length,  muscular,  with  moderate  chest  (which 
increases  with  age),  spreading  out  to  meet  the  shoulders,  with 
full  neck  vein 3 

Shoulders. — Moderately  oblique,  well  covered  on  the  blades 
and  top,  with  vertebrse  or  backbone  slightly  above  the  scapula 
or  shoulder-blades,  which  should  be  moderately  broad    ...         6 

Chest. — Wide  and  deep;  also  round  and  full  just  back  of  elbows       10 

Brisket. — Deep  and  moderately  projecting  from  between  the  legs, 
and  proportionately  covered  with  flesh  and  fat 4 

Ribs. — Well  sprung  from  the  backbone,  arched  and  deep,  neatly 
joined  to  the  crops  and  loins 8 

Back. — Broad  and  straight  from  crops  to  hooks;  loins  strong; 
hook-bones  moderate  in  width,  not  prominent,  and  well  covered; 
rumps  long,  fuU,  level,  and  rounded  neatly  into  hindquarters   .        10 

Hindquarters. — Deep  and  fuU;  thighs  thick  and  muscular,  and 
in  proportion  to  hindquarters;  twist  filled  out  well  in  its  "seam" 
so  as  to  form  an  even,  wide  plane  between  thighs     ....         8 

Tail. — Fine,  coming  neatly  out  of  the  body  on  a  Une  with  the  back 
and  hanging  at  right  angles  to  it 3 

Underline. — Straight  as  nearly  as  possible;  flank  deep  and  full         4 

Legs. — Short,  straight,  and  squarely  placed;  hindlegs  shghtly 
inchned  forward  below  the  hocks;  forearms  muscular;  bones 
fine  and  clean 4 

Flesh. — Even  and  without  patchiness 4 

Skin. — Of  moderate  thickness  and  meUow  touch,  abundantly 
covered  with  tliick,  soft  hair.  (Much  of  the  thriftiness,  feeding 
properties,  and  value  of  the  animal  depends  upon  this  quality, 
which  is  of  great  weight  in  the  grazier's  and  butcher's  judg- 
ment. A  good  "touch"  will  compensate  for  some  deficiencies  of 
form.  Nothing  can  compensate  for  a  skin  hard  and  stiff.  In 
raising  the  skin  from  the  body  it  should  have  a  substantial,  soft, 
flexible  feeling,  and  when  beneath  the  outspread  hand  it  should 
move  easily  as  though  resting  on  a  soft,  cellular  substance, 
which,  however,  becomes  firmer  as  the  animal  ripens.  A  thin, 
papery  skin  is  objectionable,  especially  in  a  cold  climate)     .      .        10 

General  Appearance. — Elegant,  well  bred  and  masculine.  The 
walk  square,  the  step  quick,  and  the  head  up 10 

Perfection 100 

When  bulls  are  exhibited  with  their  progeny  in  a  separate  class, 
add  25  counts  for  progeny. 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY     251 
Cow. 

Points. 

Color. — Black.  White  is  objectionable,  except  on  the  underline 
behind  the  navel,  and  there  only  to  a  moderate  extent  ...         2 

Head. — Forehead  moderately  broad,  and  slightly  indented; 
tapering  toward  the  nose;  muzzle  fine;  nostrils  wide  and  open; 
distance  from  eyes  to  nostrils  of  moderate  length;  eyes  full, 
bright  and  expressive,  indicative  of  good  disposition;  ears 
large,  slightly  rising  upward,  and  well  furnished  with  hair; 
poll  well  defined,  and  without  any  appearance  of  horns  or  scurs; 
jaw  clean 10 

Throat. — Clean,  without  any  development  of  loose  flesh  under- 
neath             3 

Neck. — Of  medium  length,  spreading  out  to  meet  the  shoulders, 
with  full  neck  vein 3 

Shoulders. — Moderately  obhque,  well  covered  on  the  blades 
and  top,  with  vertebrae  or  backbone  shghtly  above  the  scapula 
or  shoulder-blades,  which  should  be  moderately  broad    ...         6 

Chest. — Wide  and  deep;  also  round  and  full  just  back  of  elbows.       10 

Brisket. — Deep  and  moderately  projecting  from  between  the 
legs  and  proportionately  covered  with  flesh  and  fat  ...      .         4 

RiRS. — Well  sprung  from  the  backbone,  arched  and  deep,  neatly 
joined  to  the  crops  and  loins 8 

Back. — Broad  and  straight  from  crops  to  hooks;  loins  strong; 
hook-bones  moderate  in  width,  not  prominent,  and  well  covered; 
rumps  long,  full,  level,  and  rounded  neatly  into  hindquarters    .        10 

Hindquarters. — Deep  and  full;  thighs  thick  and  muscular,  and 
in  proportion  to  hindquarters;  twist  filled  out  well  in  its  "seam" 
so  as  to  form  an  even  plane  between  thighs 8 

Tail. — Fine,  coming  neatly  out  of  the  body  on  a  line  with  the 
back  and  hanging  at  right  angles  to  it 3 

Udder. — Not  fleshy,  coming  well  forward  in  line  with  the  body,  and 
well  up  behind;  teats  squarely  placed,  well  apart  and  of  good  size         8 

Underline. — Straight  as  nearly  as  possible;  flank  deep  and  full         4 

Legs. — Short,  straight,  and  squarely  placed;  hindlegs  slightly 
inchned  forward  below  the  hocks;  forearms  muscular;  bones 
fine  and  clean 3 

Flesh. — -Even  and  without  patchiness 3 

Skin. — Of  moderate  thickness  and  mellow  touch,  abundantly 
covered  with  thick,  soft  hair.  (Much  of  the  thriftiness,  feed- 
ing properties,  and  value  of  the  animal  depends  upon  this 
quality,  which  is  of  great  weight  in  the  grazier's  and  butcher's 
judgment.  A  good  "touch"  will  compensate  for  some  defi- 
ciencies of  form.  Nothing  can  compensate  for  a  skin  hard  and 
stiff.  In  raising  the  skin  from  the  body  it  should  have  a  sub- 
stantial, soft,  flexible  feeling,  and  when  beneath  the  outspread 
hand  it  should  move  easily  as  though  resting  on  a  soft,  cellular 
substance  which,  however,  becomes  firmer  as  the  animal  ripens. 
A  thin,  papery  skin  is  objectionable,  especially  in  a  cold  climate)       10 

General  Appearance. — Elegant,  well  bred,  and  feminine.  The 
walk  square,  the  step  quick,  and  the  head  up 5 

Perfection 100 

In  judging  heifers,  omit  No.  12  and  add  3  counts  to  No.  15  and  5 
counts  to  No.  17. 


252      JUDGING  BEEF  AND  DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 

Hereford. — The  Hereford  breed  is  characterized  by  an 
unusually  striking  combination  of  colors.  The  body  proper 
is  red;  the  head,  top  of  neck,  shoulders,  over  the  crops, 
lower  part  of  the  neck,  brisket,  floor  of  the  body,  the  feet, 
legs  and  switch  are  more  or  less  characterized  by  white. 
This  varies  somewhat.  A  medium  shade  of  red  is  most 
desirable,  light  colors  being  objectionable.  The  general  ten- 
dency is  toward  these  marks,  however,  the  principal  variation 
in  color  is  in  the  regions  mentioned  other  than  the  head. 
This  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  beef  breeds,  the  weight  of 


Fig.   106.— Hereford  bull. 

males  being  from  1800  to  2400  pounds.  The  breed  ranks 
high  as  a  meat  producer,  although  there  is  some  tendency 
to  lack  of  development  in  the  hindquarters  especially.  In 
milk  production  it  is  average.  Herefords  graze  well  on 
rather  sparse  pasture  and  in  this  respect  they  are  superior 
to  most  of  the  other  recognized  beef  breeds.  The  head  of 
the  Hereford  is  square  and  broad,  showing  marked  character 
and  refinement.  The  horns  are  fine,  waxy,  rather  prominent, 
and  add  much  to  the  natural  beauty  of  the  breed.  The 
disposition  of  the  Hereford  is  more  nervous  than  the  Short- 
horn and  less  so  than  the  Aberdeen-Angus.  The  quality  is 
usually  superior,  as  shown  in  the  condition  of  the  hide,  hair, 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY     253 

and  bone  development.  The  constitution  and  vigor  of  the 
Hereford  is  a  significant  characteristic  of  the  breed  with- 
standing the  changes  of  cUmate  on  the  range  to  a  remarkable 
degree. 

Standard  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of  Points  for  Hereford 

Cattle. 

Points. 

Color. — ^Medium,  deep,  rich  red,  with  white  head,  breast,  belly, 
crest,  switch,  and  ankles 5 

He.u). — Forehead  broad  and  prominent,  face  short,  shghtly 
tapering  toward  nose;  muzzle  full;  nostrils  wide  and  open; 
eyes  large  and  expressive;  ears  of  medium  size,  well  set  and  well 
covered  with  hair;  horns  of  medium  size;  even  color,  coming 
from  head  at  right  angles,  set  on  level  with  crop,  back  and  tail 
head,  curving  forward  and  downward 8 

Throat. — Cleah,  without  any  excessive  development  of  loose  flesh 
or  fat  underneath 2 

Neck. — Short,  neat,  spreading  out  to  meet  shoulders,  with  full 
neck  vein,  free  from  loose  skin.  (Males:  neck  muscular,  with 
full  crest,  according  to  age) 2 

Shoulders. — ^Straight,  round,  full,  smooth  and  well  covered;  top 
of  shoulder-blades  slightly  below  vertebrae,  good  width  on  top  .         6 

Chest. — Wide,  deep,  round  and  full  just  back  of  shoulders     .      .         6 

Brisket. — Deep  and  wide,  moderately  projecting,  free  from  flabbi- 
ness 2 

Ribs. — Well  sprung  from  backbone,  close  together,  long  and 
arched,  carrying  the  full  width  of  shoulders  and  deeply  and 
smoothly  covered 8 

Back  and  Loin. — Broad,  straight  and  heavily  covered  from 
crops  to  hooks,  hooks  moderately  wide  and  well  covered      .      .        10 

Rump. — Long,  wide,  smooth  and  well  covered,  carrying  width  in 
proportion  to  width  of  back  and  hooks,  joining  smoothly  into 
quarters 5 

Quarters. — Long,  straight,  muscular,  fuU,  deep  and  thick     .  4 

Thigh  and  Twist. — Fiill  and  thick,  carried  well  down  to  hocks  .         3 

Tail. — Tail  head  level  with  line  of  back,  tail  dropping  at  right 
angles  to  back  line 1 

LTnderline. — Straight;  flanks  deep  and  full 3 

Legs. — Short,  straight  and  squarely  placed,  perpendicular  both 
from  side  and  end  view,  forearm  muscular,  bones  strong  and 
clean 6 

Flesh. — Deep,  firm,  smooth,  uniform  covering  of  all  parts  and 
free  from  patchiness 8 

Skin  — Of  moderate  thickness,  mellow,  pliable  and  loose,  abun- 
dantly covered  with  long,  thick,  silky  hair tj 

General  Appearance. — Vigorous,    compact    and    symmetrical.  ^ 

Bulls  masculine  and  possesing  an  abundance  of  quaUty  and 
predominant  breeding  characteristics.  Females  matronly, 
roomy,  smooth,  showing  quality  and  feminine  appearance 
throughout 10 

Weight. — Age  and  condition  to  be  considered 5 

Total 100 


254      JUDGING  BEEF  AND  DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 

Galloway. — The  Galloway  breed  originated  in  Scotland 
in  the  counties  of  Wigton,  Ayr,  and  Dumfries.  The  original 
Galloway  was  characterized  by  a  number  of  objectionable 
points,  principally  in  the  lack  of  rib  development  and  early 
maturing  qualities.  The  modern  type  of  Galloway,  however, 
has  been  improved  very  much  in  these  respects,  representing 
a  comparatively  compact,  low  set,  thick-fleshed  beef  animal. 
The  weight  of  the  males  ranges  from  1700  to  2000  pounds  on 
the  average,  cows  weighing  considerably  less.  This  is  one 
of  the  smallest  breeds  of  beef  cattle  not  ranking  with  the 


Fig.   107 — Galloway  bull. 

former  three  described  in  this  respect.  The  breed  is  polled. 
The  standard  color  of  the  Galloway  is  solid  black,  although 
white  frequently  occurs.  The  coat  of  hair  is  exceedingly 
long,  thick,  curly,  mossy,  and  evenly  distributed,  and  for 
this  reason  the  hide  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  robes. 
The  quality  is  without  objection,  the  bone  being  fine 
and  the  skin  mellow  and  elastic.  The  constitution  is  good, 
the  hardiness  of  the  breed  being  especially  significant  in 
its  adaptation  to  colder,  less  protected  conditions  than  the 
other  beef  breeds.  The  Galloway  ranks  well  in  its  meat- 
producing  qualities. 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY     255 

Standard  of  Excellence  for  Galloway  Cattle. 

Color. — Black,  or  black,  with  a  brownish  tinge.  White  markings 
on  feet,  ankles  or  legs,  or  on  any  portion  of  the  body  above  the 
underline,  are  very  objectionable. 

Head. — Short  and  wide,  forehead  broad,  crown  wide  and  oval,  not 
rising  to  a  point.  Anj^  trace  of  scurs  or  horns  debar  an  animal  from 
registration.     Face  clean,  muzzle  broad,  and  nostrils  large. 

Eye. — Large  and  prominent. 

Ear. — Moderate  in  length  and  broad,  pointing  forward  and  upward, 
with  fringe  of  long  hairs. 

Neck. — Short,  clean,  and  filUng  into  the  shoulder  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  make  the  neck  and  shoulder  of  fleshy  animals  appear  moulded 
as  one  piece.  The  top  of  the  neck  in  line  with  the  back  in  a  female, 
and  in  a  male  gradually  rising  with  age. 

Body. — Deep,  wide,  well  rounded,  moderate  in  length  and  symmetrical. 

Shoulders.— Broad,  but  well  laid  into  body,  joining  smoothly;  com- 
pact and  deeply  fleshed  on  top. 

Ribs. — Deep  and  well  sprung,  crops  deeply  fleshed,  making  width  of 
shoulders  and  body  at  ribs  uniform. 

Hook-boxes. — Not  prominent;  in  fleshy  animals  not  visible. 

Loin. — Moderate  in  length,  wide  and  deeply  fleshed. 

Hindquarters. — Long,  wide  and  well  fUled. 

Rump.— Straight,  vnde,  carrying  width  of  bodv  out  uniformly.  Well 
filled  with  flesh. 

Thighs. — Broad  as  viewed  from  side,  thick  as  viewed  behind;  straight 
and  well  let  down  at  hock,  rounded  buttocks  very  objectionable. 

Legs. — Short  and  clean,  with  fine  bone. 

Tail. — Set  on  straight  and  smoothly  laid  in  with  flesh  at  sides.  A 
high  tail-head  ver}'  objectionable. 

Skin. — Mellow  and  moderate  in  thickness. 

H.UR. — Soft  and  wa\w,  with  mossy  undercoat.  Harsh  or  wiry  hair  is 
very  objectionable. "  Curly  hair,  if  soft,  is  not  objectionable. 

Points  to  be  Avoided. 

by   the   late   JAMES   BIGGAR,    DALBEATTIE,    SCOTLAND. 

Long,  narrow  head  with  light  crown. 

Narrow,  tapering  muzzle. 

Long,  drooping  ears. 

Small,  deep-set  eyes. 

Small,  light  neck. 

Light,  scraggy  breast. 

High,  narrow  shoulders. 

Flatness  behind  shoulders. 

Light  fore  or  back  ribs. 

Square  and  prominent  hook-bones. 

High  or  drooping  rumps. 

Weak  or  slack  loins. 

Rounded  buttocks. 

Fleshy  double  thighs. 

Big,  coarse  bones. 

Thick,  stiff  skin. 

Hard,  wirj'  hair  without  soft  undercoat. 


256      JUDGING  BEEF  AND  DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 

Sussex. — ^The  Sussex  breed  of  cattle  is  not  of  special 
significance  in  beef  production  in  this  country.  The  native 
home  of  the  breed  is  in  the  county  of  Sussex,  England.  In 
this  country  interests  were  centered  in  this  breed  largely  in 
Tennessee.  The  breed  was  first  imported  in  1884  by  Mr. 
Overton  Lea  who  maintained  quite  a  large  herd.  Later  other 
importations  were  made;  however,  the  breed  has  not  become 
important.  The  size  is  comparable  to  the  largest  breeds  of 
beef  cattle,  the  bulls  attaining  a  weight  equal  to  that  of  the 
recognized  breeds.  The  color  of  the  Sussex  is  deep  red  and 
it  is  characterized  by  horns  of  rather  prominent  develop- 
ment. The  body  is  capacious  and  low  set,  and  while  ranking 
very  favorably,  the  breed  is  not  widely  disseminated.  The 
form  of  the  Sussex  is  reasonably  blocky,  thus  meeting  the 
requirements  of  the  typical  beef  animal  to  quite  a  marked 
degree.  The  quality  is  somewhat  deficient,  the  head,  neck 
and  shoulder  development  especially  showing  an  inclination 
to  coarseness.  The  breed  is  fair  in  milk-producing  qualities. 
Specimens  of  the  breed  graze  well  and  mature  early.  The 
chief  criticisms  of  the  breed  are  its  coarseness  and  lack  of 
general  refinement. 

Dual  Purpose  Breeds. — The  dual  purpose  breeds  are 
characterized  by  a  two-purpose  function — the  production 
of  both  meat  and  milk.  Much  has  been  said  and  written 
about  the  merits  of  these  breeds,  at  times  favorable  and  again 
unfavorable.  While  it  is  recognized  that  perfection  of  both 
meat  and  milk-giving  attributes  cannot  be  reached  in  the 
same  animal,  there  is  undoubtedly  a  place  for  the  dual 
purpose  breeds  on  the  small  farms  especially.  Under  such 
conditions  neither  strict  dairying  nor  beef  production  can 
be  made  a  specialty.  A  combination  of  the  two,  although 
each  showing  comparatively  lessened  proficiency,  seems  to 
more  fully  meet  the  needs  of  the  smaller  and  more  isolated 
class  of  farmers.  The  three  breeds  of  importance  in  helping 
to  meet  these  requirements  are  characterized  as  follows : 

Shorthorn  {Dual  Purpose  Type). — The  Shorthorn  breed 
of  cattle,  formerly  described  under  the  beef  type,  is  significant 
in  having  a  strain  or  family  in  the  breed  having  well-developed 
dual  purpose  characteristics.     Animals  partaking  of  these 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY     257 

qualities  are  often  referred  to  as  Bates-bred  cattle  because 
of  the  particular  attention  which  this  breeder  gave  to  milk- 
giving  characteristics  in  the  breed.  Shorthorns  possessing  the 
dual  purpose  functions  do  not  have  the  beef -producing  quali- 
ties which  the  specialized  beef  strains  possess ;  however,  they 
have  a  beef-producing  conformation  which  is  strikingly  ex- 
hibited in  the  offspring.  Although  not  as  early  maturing 
as  the  popular  Scotch  type  of  animals,  the  correlated  func- 
tions of  meat  and  milk  production  are  very  acceptable.    In 


Fig.   lOS. — Dual  purpose  8hortlioru  cow. 

England  large  numbers  of  dual  purpose  Shorthorns  are  bred 
because  of  their  significant  double-producing  functions. 
Numerous  creditable  records  have  been  made  which  indi- 
cate the  possibility  of  developing  Shorthorns  in  these  two 
capacities.  There  is  probably  no  other  beef  breed  which 
will  equal  the  Shorthorn  in  dairy  performance,  although 
these  qualities  are  not  equally  developed  in  all  animals.  In 
selecting  Shorthorns  for  milk  and  beef  production,  special 
attention  should  be  given  to  the  type  and  breeding  records. 
The  incorporation  of  Scotch  or  other  blood  with  specific 
meat-producing  tendencies  would  of  necessity  unbalance  the 
17 


258     JUDGING  BEEF  AND  DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 

dual  purpose  function.  The  general  Shorthorn  character 
should  be  kept  in  mind  in  judging  dual  purpose  animals  of 
the  breed. 

Red  Polled. — The  Red  Polled  breed  is  the  most  significant 
breed  which  has  been  developed  entirely  for  dual  purpose 
production.  It  is  a  native  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  counties, 
England,  having  become  disseminated  rather  widely  in  certain 
states  in  this  country.  The  breed  is  characterized  by  a  solid 
red  color,  except  white  is  permissible  up  to  the  navel  and  on 
the  switch.    The  breed  possesses  a  polled  head  and  a  very 


109.— Red  Polled  bull. 


well-balanced  dual  purpose  capacity.  The  type  of  this 
breed  varies  considerably,  this  being  a  condition  difficult 
to  govern  in  any  dual  purpose  animal,  not  necessarily  be- 
cause of  the  breed  but  because  of  the  likelihood  of  different 
standards  being  maintained  by  various  breeders.  The 
weight  of  mature  males  varies  from  1800  to  2000  pounds 
on  the  average.  As  would  be  expected  in  a  dual  pur- 
pose animal  the  form  is  usually  not  as  deep,  broad,  or 
compact  as  in  the  special  beef  breeds.  The  Red  Polled 
is  somewhat  lacking  in  natural  flesh  and  in  the  development 
of  the  hindquarters.  The  quality  is  regarded  as  fair  and  the 
temperament  somewhat  nervous.     The  chief  objections  to 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY     259 

the  breed  are  the  variation  in  type,  the  lack  of  uniform  udder 
development,  and  of  good  fleshing  qualities.  The  teats  are 
objectionable  because  of  the  extreme  variation  in  size.  A 
better -defined  standard  toward  which  breeders  could  work 
would  overcome  a  great  many  of  the  present  faults  of  the 
breed,  and  aid  in  its  distribution. 


Fi...    11(1.      i;..I  I>,,11,  ,1  cow. 

Standard  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of  Points  for  Red 
Polled  Cattle. 

Bull. 

General  Description.— Strong,  impressive,  low  set,  and  of  good 
carriage.  Weight  1800  pounds  to  2000  pounds  when  mature 
and  nnished. 

Color.— Any  shade  of  red,  the  switch  of  tail  may  be  white,  with 
some  white  runnmg  forward  to  the  navel.  Nose  of  a  clear  flesh 
color.    Interior  of  ears  should  be  of  a  :^ellowish,  waxv  color  2 

Objections:  An  extreme  dark  or  an  extreme  light  red  is  not  desir- 
able.    A  cloudy  nose  or  one  with  dark  spots. 

Head.— Wide,  strong  and  mascuhne,  relatively  short.  Poll 
stronger  and  less  prominent  than  in  cow.  Ears' of  medium  size 
and  well  carried;  eyes  prominent;  muzzle  wide  with  large  nostrils       12 

Objections:     Long,  narrow,  or  lacking  in  masculine  character 

Neck.— Of  medium  length,  fuU  crest,  of  good  thickness,  strong, 
or  masculine  appearance g 

Shoulder.— Of  medium  thickness  and  smoothly  laid,  coming  up 
level  with  line  of  back g 

Carried  forward 27 


260     JUDGING  BEEF  AND  DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 

Points. 
Brought  forward 27 

Objections:  Shoulder  too  prominent,  giving  the  appearance  of 
weakness  in  heart  girth,  shoulder  protruding  above  line  of 
back. 

Chest. — Broad  and  deep,  insuring  constitution.  Brisket  promi- 
nent and  coming  well  forward 12 

Back  and  Ribs. — Back  medium  long,  straight  and  level  from 
withers  to  setting  on  of  tail,  moderately  wide,  with  spring  of 
ribs  starting  from  the  backbone,  giving  a  rounding  appearance, 
with  ribs  flat  and  fairly  wide  apart       ........        14 

Objections:  Front  ribs  too  straight,  causing  depression  back  of 
shoulders.     Drop  in  back  or  loin  below  the  top  line. 

Hips. — Wide,  rounding  over  the  hooks,  and  well  covered  ...         3 

Quarters. — Of  good  length,  full,  rounding  and  level;  thighs  wide, 
and  moderately  full,  deep 6 

Objections:     Prominent  hooks  and  sunken  quarters. 

Tail. — Tail-head  strong  and  setting  well  forward,  long  and  taper- 
ing to  a  full  switch 2 

Legs. — Short,  straight,  squarely  placed,  medium  bone       ...  3 

Objections:     Hocks  crooked;  legs  placed  too  close  together. 

Rudimentaries. — Large,  wide  apart,  and  placed  well  forward  12 

Position  of  rudimentaries 6 

Objections:  Rudimentaries  placed  back  on  scrotum,  or  placed 
itoo  close  together,  indicating  tendency  to  transmit  badly  formed 
udders. 

Hide. — Loose,  mellow,  flexible,  inchned  to  thickness,  with  a  good, 
full  coat  of  soft  hair 5 

Objections:     Thin,  papery  skin  or  wiry  hair. 

Condition. — Healthy,  moderate  to  liberal  flesh  evenly  laid  on; 
glossy  coat;  animal  presented  in  full  bloom 10 

Total 100 


Disqualifications. 

Scurs,  or  any  evidence  whatever  of  a  horny  growth  on  the  head. 
Any  white  spots  on  body  above  lower  hne  or  brush  of  tail. 

Cow. 

Points. 

General  Description. — Medium  wedge  form,  low  set,  top  and 
bottom  lines  straight  except  at  flank;  weight  1300  pounds  to 
1500  pounds  when  mature  and  finished. 

Color.— Any  shade  of  red.  The  switch  of  tail  and  udder  may  be 
white  with  some  white  running  forward  to  the  navel.  Nose  of  a 
clear  flesh  color.  Interior  of  ears  should  be  of  a  yellowish,  waxy 
color 2 

Objections:  An  extreme  dark  or  an  extreme  light  red  is  not  desir- 
able.    A  cloudy  nose  or  one  with  dark  spots. 

Carried  forward 2 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY     261 

Points. 
Brought  forward 2 

Head. — Of  medium  length,  wide  between  the  eyes,  sloping  gradu- 
ally from  above  eyes  to  poll.  The  poll  well  defined  and  promi- 
nent, with  a  sharp  dip  behind  it  in  center  of  head.  Ears  of 
medium  size  and  well  carried.  Eyes  prominent;  face  well  dished 
between  the  eyes.     Muzzle  wide,  with  large  nostrils       ...         6 

Objections:  A  rounding  or  fiat  appearance  of  the  poll.  Head 
too  long  and  narrow. 

Neck. — Of  medium  length,  clean  cut,  and  straight  from  head  to 
top  of  shoulder,  with  inclination  to  arch  when  fattened,  and 
may  show  folds  of  loose  skhi  underneath  when  in  milking  form         3 

Shoulder. — Of  medium  thickness  and  smoothly  laid,  coming  up 
level  with  line  of  back 6 

Objections:  Shoulder  too  prominent,  giving  the  appearance  of 
weakness  in  heart  girth,  shoulder  protruding  above  line  of  back. 

Chest. — Broad  and  deep,  insuring  constitution.  Brisket  promi- 
nent and  coming  well  forward 10 

Back  axd  Ribs. — Back  medium  long,  straight  and  level  from 
withers  to  setting  on  of  tail,  moderately  wide,  with  spring  of 
ribs  starting  from  the  backbone,  giving  a  rounding  appearance, 
with  ribs  fiat  and  fairly  wide  apart 14 

Objections:  Front  ribs  too  straight,  causing  depression  back  of 
shoulders.     Drop  in  back  or  loin  below  the  top  line. 

Hips. — Wide,  rounding  over  the  hooks,  and  well  covered  ...         3 

Qu.ARTERS. — Of  good  length,  full,  rounding  and  level;  thighs 
wide,  roomy,  and  not  too  meaty 6 

Objections:     Prominent  hooks  and  sunken  quarters. 

Tail. — Tail-head  strong  and  setting  well  forward,  long  and  taper- 
ing to  a  full  switch 2 

Legs. — Short,  straight,  squarely  placed,  medium  bone       ...         3 

Objections:     Hocks  crooked;  legs  placed  too  close  together. 

Foreudder. — Full  and  flexible,  reaching  well  forward,  extending 
down  level  with  hindudder 10 

HixDUDDER. — -Full  and  well  up  behind 10 

Teats. — Well  placed,  wide  apart,  and  of  reasonably  good  size     .         4 

Objections:  Lack  of  development,  especially  in  forward  udder. 
Udder  too  deep,  '"bottle-shaped,"  and  teats  too  close  together. 
Teats  unevenly  placed  and  either  too  large  or  too  small. 

Milk  Veins. — Of  medium  size,  full,  flexible,  extending  well  for- 
ward, well  retained  within  the  body;  milk  wells  of  medium  size         6 

Hide. — Loose,  mellow,  flexible,  inclined  to  thickness,  with  a  good, 
full  coat  of  soft  hair 5 

Objections:     Thin,  paper}'  skin  or  wiry  hair. 

CoxDiTiON. — Healthy,  moderate  to  liberal  flesh  evenly  laid  on; 
glossy  coat;  animal  presented  in  fuU  bloom 10 

Total 100 


Disqualifications  . 

Scurs,  or  any  evidence  whatever  of  a  horny  growth  on  the  head. 
Any  white  spots  on  body  above  lower  line  or  brush  of  tail. 


262  JUDGING  BEEF  AND  DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 

Devon.  —  The  Devon  breed  is  a  native  of  Devon  and 
Somerset  counties  England.  It  is  characterized  by  a  soHd 
red  color  except  for  white  around  the  udder  and  scrotum, 
white  being  permissible  in  neither  sex  in  front  of  the  navel. 
The  shade  of  red  varies  from  light  to  dark,  the  latter  being 
preferable.  The  muzzle  should  be  flesh-colored,  and  the  hair 
around  the  eyes  and  muzzle  a  creamy  tint.  The  weight  of  the 
males  ranges  from  1500  to  2000  pounds;  however,  the  latter 
is  somewhat  excessive  for  average  conditions.   The  horns  are 


1  l.--lJc\-i 


rather  long,  spreading  and  upturned.  The  size  of  the  horns  is 
medium,  the  l3ase  light  and  waxy,  and  the  extremities  are  of 
a  darker  shade.  The  form  of  the  Devon  is  rather  low  set, 
the  body  deep,  the  ribs  well  sprung,  and  the  heart  girth 
usually  well  developed.  The  breed  is  usually  very  refined,  and 
it  possesses  unusual  activity,  which  is  manifested  especially 
in  the  oxen  quite  generally  used  throughout  the  New  Eng- 
land States.  The  chief  faults  with  the  breed  are  the  lack 
of  size,  early  maturity,  and  uniform  milk-giving  capacity. 
The  distinctive  breed  attributes  are  the  color,  horns,  refine- 
ment, and  activity.     INIore  size  would  be  acceptable,  but 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY  '  263 

breeders  contend  that  to  increase  it  would  injure  the  quahty. 
While  the  breed  is  quite  widely  disseminated  it  is  not  re- 
garded as  important  except  under  special  localized  condi- 
tions. 

Standard  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of  Points  for  Devon 
Cattle 
Bull. 

Head.— Masculine,  full  and  broad,  tapering  toward  the  nose, 
which  should  be  flesh-colored;  nostrils  high  and  open,  muzzle 
broad;  eyes  full  and  placid  and  surrounded  with  flesh-colored 
nng;  ears  of  medium  size  and  thickness;  horns  medium  size 
growmg  at  right  angles  from  the  head,  or  slightly  elevated,' 
waxy  at  the  base,  tipped  with  a  darker  shade 10 

Cheek. — Full  and  broad  at  root  of  tongue;  throat  clean   ...         2 

Neck. — Of  medium  length  and  muscular,  widening  from  the  head 
to  the  shoulders,  and  strongly  set  on 4 

Shoulders.— Fine,   flat,  sloping,  and  well  fleshed;  arms  strong, 

with  firm  joints g 

Chest. — Deep,  broad  and  somewhat  circular     .      .      .      .      .  10 

Ribs.— Well  sprung  from  the  backbone,  nicely  ai'ched,  deep,  with 
flanks  fully  developed 10 

Back. — Straight  and  level  from  the  withers  to  the  setting  on  of 
the  tail;  loin  broad  and  full;  hips  and  rump  of  medium  width 
and  on  a  level  with  the  back 20 

Hindquarters. — Deep,  thick,  and  square [      '_        12 

Tail.—- Well  set  on  at  a  right  angle  with  the  back,  tapering,  with 
a  switch  of  white  or  roan  hair  and  reaching  the  hocks    ...         2 

Legs.— Short,  straight  and  squarely  placed  when  \-iewed  from 
behind,  not  to  cross  or  sweep  in  walking;  hoof  well  formed  4 

Skin. — Moderately  thick  and  mellow,  covered  with  an  abundant 
coat  of  rich  hair  of  a  red  color;  no  white  spot  admissible  unless 
around  the  purse g 

Size. — Minimum  weight  at  3  years  of  age  1400  pounds     '.      '      '         4 

Gener.^  Appear.ajn-ce.- As  indicated  by  stylish  and  quick 
movement,  form,  constitution,  and  vigor,  and  the  underline 
as  nearly  as  possible  parallel  with  the  line  of  the  back    ...         8 

Total 100 

Cow. 

Head. — Moderately  long,  with  a  broad  indented  forehead,  taper- 
ing considerably  toward  the  nostrils;  the  nose  of  a  flesh  color, 
nostrils  high  and  open;  the  jaws  clean;  the  eve  bright,  lively 
and  prominent,  and  surrounded  by  a  flesh-colored  ring;  throat 
clean;  ears  thin;  the  e.xpression  gentle  and  intelligent;  horns 
rnatching;  spreading  and  gracefully  turned  up,  of  a  waxy  color, 
tipped  with  a  darker  shade '        s 


Carried  forward 


264     JUDGING  BEEF  AND  DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 

Points. 

Brought  forward 8 

Neck. — Upper  line  short,  fine  at  head,  widening  and  deep  at 

withers  and  strongly  set  to  the  shoulders 4 

Shoulders. — Fine,  flat  and  sloping,  with  strong  arms  and  firm 

joints 4 

Chest. — Deep,  broad,  and  somewhat  circular  in  character      .      .         8 
Ribs.— Well  sprung  from  the  backbone,  nicely  arched,  deep,  with 

flanks  fully  developed 8 

Back. — Straight  and  level  from  the  withers  to  the  setting  on  of 
the  tail,  loin  broad  and  full,  hips  and  rump  of  medium  width, 

and  on  a  level  with  the  back 16 

Hindquarters. — Deep,  thick,  and  square 8 

Udder. — Not  fleshy,  coming  well  forward  in  line  with  the  belly 

and  weU  up  behind;  teats  moderately  large,  and  squarely  placed       20 
Tail. — Well  set  on  at  a  right  angle  with  the  back,  tapering  with 

a  switch  of  white  or  roan  hair  and  reaching  the  hocks    ...         2 
Legs. — Straight,  squarely  placed  when  viewed  from  behind,  not 

to  cross  or  sweep  in  walking;  hoof  well  formed 4 

Skin. — Moderately  thick  and  mellow,  covered  with  an  abundant 
coat  of  rich  hair  of  a  red  color;  no  white  spot  admissible,  except 

the  udder 8 

Size. — Minimum  weight  at  3  years  of  age,  1000  pounds     ...         2 
General  Appearance. — As  indicated  by  stylish  and  quick  move- 
ment, form,  constitution  and  vigor,  and  the  underline  as  nearly 
as  possible  parallel  with  the  line  of  the  back 8 

Total 100 


Class  Characteristics. — From  the  standpoint  of  the  judge, 
cattle  may  be  divided  into  fat,  feeder,  stocker,  young  stock, 
or  calves,  and  breeding  animals  which  should  possess  the 
following  characteristics : 

Fat  Cattle. — Fat  cattle,  which  includes  steers  usually, 
are  judged  largely  on  their  conformation,  quality,  and 
condition.  This  class  of  animals  is  further  divided  into 
grades,  ranging  from  inferior  to  choice.  A  consideration 
of  these  grades,  however,  is  not  important  at  this  time. 
While  it  is  desirable  for  the  fat  animal  to  possess  the  same 
form  as  the  highly  developed  breeding  animal,  their  con- 
dition is  of  fundamental  importance,  especially  from  the 
market  standpoint.  Show  ring  fat  cattle  should  possess 
faultless  conformation  and  quality  as  w^ell  as  condition. 
The  inferior  grades  of  fat  cattle  will,  of  necessity,  possess 
serious  faults.  However,  proper  fitting  will  give  them 
acceptable  condition  and  value. 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY     265 

A  steer  may  be  ideal  from  the  standpoint  of  form  alone, 
but  unless  it  is  accompanied  by  the  proper  amount  of  con- 
dition or  fat,  it  would  be  eliminated  from  a  place  in  a  fat 
class  for  this  reason  alone.  The  fat  animal  should  be  long, 
broad,  deep  and  low  set;  the  top  and  underline  should  be 
straight  and  parallel,  the  ribs  well  sprung,  the  loin  broad 
and  thick,  the  coupling  short,  and  the  twist  well  filled.  The 
head  should  be  broad  and  long,  the  muzzle  prominent,  the 
eyes  large,  clear  and  bright,  the  neck  short  and  full  and 
evenly  blended  with  the  shoulder. 

The  condition  of  a  fat  animal  may  be  determined,  first, 
by  the  general  appearance,  including  symmetry  and  smooth- 
ness, and  lastly  by  an  examination  of  the  tongue  root,  which 
should  be  full  and  firm.  The  flanks  should  be  low  and  well 
filled  and  the  cod  or  purse  fully  distended  with  fat.  The 
back,  loin  and  ribs  should  be  deeply  and  uniformly  covered. 
The  amount  of  fat  may  be  determined  by  passing  the  hand, 
palm  down,  along  the  back  and  sides  which  should  be  deeply 
and  smoothly  covered  if  the  animal  is  in  high  condition. 
Rolls,  ties  or  patches  are  objectionable  to  the  extent  of 
their  occurrence.  A  true,  well-balanced  trim  animal,  with 
a  minimum  of  waste  is  the  ideal  for  the  feeder  and  the 
butcher. 

Feeders. — Feeder  cattle  should  be  of  similar  form  to  fat 
animals  except  for  the  condition  or  fat  accumulation. 
Ordinarily  such  animals  are  lacking  materially  in  fat,  this 
depending,  however,  on  the  way  in  which  they  have  been 
handled.  Strictly  speaking,  an  animal  is  a  feeder  until 
it  has  accumulated  a  sufiicient  amount  of  fat  to  place  it  in 
the  most  desirable  market  condition.  Usually  animals 
which  class  as  feeders  have  only  a  limited  amount  of  fat, 
the  result  of  ordinary  feeding  or  grazing  conditions  on  the 
range  or  farm. 

The  lines  of  the  animal  should  be  straight,  the  form 
square,  low  set  and  it  should  possess  quality  and  a  sufficient 
amount  of  constitution  to  get  the  best  results  under  feed 
lot  conditions.  Otherwise,  constitution  is  not  of  special 
significance  in  an  animal  of  this  type.  Feeders  should 
possess  all  the  requisites  of  the  fat  animal  except  for  fat 


266     JUDGING  BEEF  AND  DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY     267 

accumulation,  which,  is  the  ultimate  purpose  for  purchasing 
such  animals.  The  feeder  is  the  prospect  and  the  finished 
animal  the  product  of  the  stockman's  goal.  The  desirability 
of  the  form  and  finish  of  the  fat  animal  is  directly  dependent 
on  the  kind  of  animal  selected  in  the  beginning. 

Stockers. — Stocker  cattle  should  be  the  same  in  type  and 
breeding  as  feeders  or  fat  animals,  although  the  grades  may 
vary  likewise.  Stockers  are  young  animals,  ordinarily 
yearlings,  which  are  wintered  on  roughage,  grazed  the 
following  summer  and  finished  for  market  usually  during 
the  fall  and  winter  period,  though  sometimes  finished  in 
summer.  The  stocker  should  possess  all  the  attributes  of 
the  feeder  or  fat  animal  except  age  and  condition.  Con- 
siderable attention  should  be  given  to  the  outcome.  The 
desirability  of  the  stocker  is  determined  by  the  market  grade 
of  the  animal,  which  ranges  from  inferior  to  choice.  Like 
feeders  and  fat  animals  they  may  be  either  pure  bred  or 
grades  from  some  of  the  prominent  beef  breeds,  most  of  them 
coming  under  the  grade  class.  It  is  only  in  selecting  animals 
for  some  special  purpose,  like  feeding,  and  later  fitting  for 
some  of  the  large  stock  shows,  that  pure  breeds  are  likely 
to  be  used.  Even  then  many  of  the  best-fitted  animals  are 
of  grade  origin.  In  selecting  a  stocker  constitution  is  usually 
of  somewhat  greater  importance  than  in  the  feeder  or  fat 
animal. 

Calves. — Calves  are  subject  to  judging  for  future  use  on 
the  same  basis  as  discussed  under  stocker,  and  feeder 
cattle.  They  should  possess  quality,  constitution,  and 
vigor,  a  full,  square  form,  and  show  evidence  of  develop- 
ment in  a  square  frame,  a  strong  bone,  a  deep,  uniform 
amount  of  natural  flesh,  and  capacious  feeding  qualities. 
Evidence  of  continuous  thrift  should  be  apparent.  Young 
animals  with  small  bone,  cramped  heart  girth  and  upstand- 
ing, shallow  bodies  seldom  develop  into  thrifty  specimens. 
In  judging  calves  a  great  deal  of  stress  should  be  placed  on 
the  outcome  or  future  usefulness.  The  small,  fat,  sleek- 
bodied  calf  seldom  develops  into  a  large,  thrifty,  capacious 
animal.  One  with  a  square,  compact  form,  although  some- 
what inclined  to  be  rough,  will  usually  make  good  growth 


268     JUDGING  BEEF  AND  DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 

and  develop  into  an  animal  at  least  with  acceptable  form 
and  quality.  Calves  should  show  every  evidence  of  early 
maturity  and  natural  fleshing  qualities. 

BREEDING  ANIMALS. 

Breed  Type. — In  selecting  a  breeding  animal  of  pure 
lineage,  the  breed  type  should  receive  first  consideration. 
If  the  animal  is  lacking  in  any  substantial  breed  character- 
istics this  is  sufficient  to  cause  severe  discrimination.  Animals 
which  are  maintained  for  the  reproduction  of  pure-bred 
animals  should  possess  the  accepted  form  and  features 
maintained  by  the  breeders  or  the  organization  which  cham- 
pions the  cause  of  the  breed.  An  animal  which  fails  to  con- 
form to  breed  type  is  not  only  at  fault  itself,  but  the  faulty 
characters  will  be  reproduced  and  thus  magnify  the  condition. 
In  establishing  a  pure-bred  herd  the  type  accepted  for  a 
foundation  should  stand  for  some  definite  purpose.  The 
breed  which  is  making  the  greatest  headway  is  the  one 
which  has  embodied  in  it  the  fundamentals  necessary  for 
accomplishing  the  specific  purpose  in  view.  If  the  aim  is 
to  breed  high-class,  pure-bred  animals  the  best  is  none  too 
good.  Unless  animals  can  be  produced  which  satisfy  the 
critical  breeder  or  feeder,  it  is  useless  to  spend  money  toward 
this  end.  To  do  this  involves  a  knowledge  of  breed  type  or 
character.  The  student  or  purchaser  should  therefore  be 
familiar  with  the  attributes  or  type  qualifications,  which 
should  be   an   embodiment  of  correlated  utility  functions. 

Conformation. — The  breeding  animal  is  not  materially 
different  from  the  type  described  under  Beef  Conformation. 
The  breeding  animal,  however,  should  possess  scale,  an 
abundance  of  constitution,  and  show  evidence  of  capacity 
both  in  the  digestive  and  reproductive  systems.  The  con- 
stitution should  be  unusually  well  developed  because  of  the 
long  period  of  usefulness  in  these  animals.  A  long,  deep, 
roomy  barrel  in  the  breeding  female  is  important,  although 
symmetry  and  quality  should  conform  with  the  other 
requisites  of  the  animal.  Males  should  show  strong  repro- 
ductive qualities  in  the  head  and  crest,  and  females  evidence 


BREEDING  ANIMALS 


269 


of  a^  strongly  developed  reproductive  system  and  milking 
qualities.  In  the  female  the  hindquarters  should  be  long, 
level,  the  thighs  broad,  and  the  hook  points  rather  prominent 
when  the  animal  is  in  medium  flesh.  The  latter  attribute 
is  indicative  of  strong  maternal  qualities. 

Constitution  and  Vigor. — All  breeding  animals  should  be 
qualified  with  unusual  indications  of  strong  bodies  and 
natural  vigor.  Such  animals,  very  much  unlike  fattening 
animals,  must    undergo    a    severe    strain    incident   to    re- 


rujigc!.!  ouuaiiiuauu. 


production.  This  requires  an  unusual  amount  of  vitality 
for  best  results.  These  characteristics  are  indicated  in  the 
large,  broad  muzzle,  broad,  clear-cut  head,  bright,  prominent 
eyes,  and  a  deep,  full  chest.  A  capacious,"  compact  yet 
roomy  body  is  also  indicative  of  this  qualification.  Consider- 
ation of  these  points  is  vital  in  selecting  breeding  animals. 

Temperament. — Temperament  has  reference  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  nervous  system  or  the  amount  of  nerve  force. 
In  beef  cattle  the  temperament  should  be  lymphatic,  which 
signifies  rapid  fattening  propensities.  In  animals  maintained 
for  breeding  purposes  activity  and  thrift  should  be  closely 


270     JUDGING  BEEF  AND  DUAL  PURPOSE  CATTLE 

associated  with  this  attribute,  although  not  to  the  extent 
of  depreciating  the  normally  accepted  qualification.  Any 
indication  of  nervousness  in  a  beef  animal  is  seriously 
objectionable,  although  some  excellent  beef  animals  are  dis- 
posed to  have  this  fault.  Such  a  condition  is  antagonistic 
to  rapid  fleshing  qualities.  Breeding  animals  should  possess 
a  bold,  stylish  carriage,  although  the  temperament  should  be 
lymphatic,  thus  indicating  easy  handling  and  management. 
A  sluggish  temperament  is  very  objectionable. 

Sex  Characteristics. — The  sex  of  a  breeding  animal  should 
be  shown  by  a  glance  at  the  head  and  neck.  The  bull 
should  be  strong  in  the  head,  although  there  should  be 
every  evidence  of  style  and  refinement.  The  neck  should 
be  short,  thick,  and  the  crest  well  developed,  although  not 
to  a  disproportionate  extent.  The  body  should  be  broad, 
deep,  long  and  compact,  indicating  the  transmission  of 
weight  and  early  maturing  qualities.  Indication  of  feminine 
characters  should  be  disqualifying  marks.  Delicacy  of 
constitution  and  lack  of  capacity  are  serious  faults. 

The  head  of  the  female  should  be  finer  and  cleaner  cut 
than  in  the  male.  Any  indication  of  masculinity  is  very 
objectionable.  There  should  be  an  expression  of  refinement 
in  the  head  which  should  characterize  the  entire  animal. 
There  should  be  no  indication  of  crest  development.  The 
head,  neck  and  shoulders  should  be  on  a  level,  there  being 
neither  a  rise  nor  a  depression  in  the  lines  of  these  parts. 
The  mammary  system  should  be  well  developed,  although  in 
beef  animals  it  is  not  expected  that  extraordinary  evidences 
of  milk-producing  capacity  will  be  present.  There  should 
be  sufficient  development,  however,  to  nourish  the  calf 
until  its  growth  and  development  can  be  cared  for  otherwise. 
Evidences  of  masculinity  in  the  male  and  femininity  in  the 
female  should  be  readily  apparent. 


CHAPTER  XL 
JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE. 

Purpose  of  the  Dairy  Animal. — The  purpose  of  the  dairy 
animal,  and  therefore  the  fundamental  factors  in  judging, 
are  strikingly  different  from  any  other  farm  animal.  The 
indications  of  intrinsic  value  and  capacity  are  determined 
from  an  entirely  different  viewpoint  than  in  judging  the  horse 
or  block  animals.  The  form  is  not  only  different  but  its 
associated  attributes  for  attainment  of  purpose  are  deeper 
lying  than  in  other  animals.  From  the  standpoint  of 
capacity  the  development  of  the  vital  organs  are  of  much 
greater  importance  in  the  dairy  animal  than  in  any  other. 
For  example,  the  direct  association  of  the  circulatory  system 
with  milk-giving  capacity,  which  is  the  important  and  one 
vital  attainment  of  the  dairy  animal,  represents  quite 
forcibly  the  depth  of  this  statement.  Without  a  strong  cir- 
culatory system,  whereby  the  food  can  be  manufactured  into 
milk  through  the  various  processes  of  digestion,  absorption, 
and  assimilation  the  capacity  of  the  dairy  animal  would  be 
limited.  The  limitation  would  depend  on  the  degree  of 
development  of  the  circulatory  system.  An  animal  with  a 
weakened  system  would  have  low  vitality  and  therefore 
not  only  would  it  be  limited  in  point  of  present  attainment, 
but  the  durability  and  persistency  of  production  would  be 
lessened  in  the  ofTspring. 

As  the  dairy  animal  gives  off  the  products  of  food  diges- 
tion, absorption  and  assimilation,  daily  the  natural  result 
would  be  an  animal  with  the  spare,  open  conformation  such 
as  the  dairy  animal  possesses.  The  block  animals,  which 
accumulate  the  products  of  the  manufactured  food,  assume 
an  entirely  different  form.  Instead  of  the  food  products 
being  given  off  daily  there  is  an  accumulation  on  the  body 
of  the  animal,  based  on  dry  matter,  a  similar  or  like  amount 

(271) 


272 


JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


«^     ^       to         K) 


DAIRY  FORM 


273 


of  manufactured  food  materials.  We  have,  therefore,  the 
two  distinct  types,  one  eUminating  from  the  body  through 
the  mammary  system  and  the  other  accumulating  the  prod- 
ucts in  the  bone  and  muscular  tissues,  the  former  being 
represented  in  the  dairy  animal  and  the  latter  in  the  block 
animal. 

Dairy  Form, — The  type  of  a  typical  dairy  cow  presents  a 
striking  contrast  to  meat-producing  animals.  This  is  only 
natural,  however,  considering  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  work 
to  be  performed.  In  all  other  food-producing  animals  the 
effect  of  food  consumption  is  cumulative,  the  digested  por- 
tions of  the  food  eaten  being  stored  in  the  body  of  the  animal. 
The  square,  blocky,  compact  form  produces  the  most  econom- 
ical results  from  a  meat-productive  standpoint  because  the 
maximum  amount  of  the  manufactured  product  can  be 
stored  under  such  conditions.  Likewise  the  dairy  type  of 
animal  produces  the  largest  quantity  of  milk  because  of  the 
adaptation  of  the  triangular  or  wedge-shaped  form  to  milk 
production.  The  dairy  animal  does  not  have  need  for  a 
broad,  smooth,  compact  shoulder,  back,  loin,  or  thighs. 
The  one  great  work  of  this  type  of  animal  is  to  produce, 
through  the  digestive  and  mammary  systems,  the  maximum 
amount  of  milk  possible  under  the  conditions  of  individual 
form,  kind  and  quantity  of  feed  consumed  and  general  care 
and  management.  This  necessitates  a  striking  contrast  in 
the  development  of  the  body  of  beef  and  dairy  animals. 


EXPLANATION  OF  FIG.   114. 


1— Mouth. 

2 — Nostrils. 

.3 — Muzzle. 

4 — Face. 

5 — Eyes. 

6 — Forehead. 

7 — Ears. 

8— PoU. 

9 — Horns. 
10 — Jaws. 
11 — Dewlap. 
12 — Brisket. 
13— Neck. 
18 


14— Withers. 

15— Crops. 

16 — Shoulders. 

17— Heart  girth. 

18 — Foreflank. 

19— Legs. 

20 — Feet. 

21 — Dew  claws. 

22 — Belly  or  underline. 

23 — Mammary    orifices 

or  wells. 
24 — Mammarj'  veins. 
25 — Fore  udder. 


26— Teats. 

27 — Barrel. 

28— Back. 

30 — Hindflank. 

31 — Hook  points. 

32— Tail-head. 

33 — Pin-bones  or  thurls. 

34 — Rump. 

35 — Escutcheon. 

36— Tail. 

37— Thighs. 

38— Hind  udder. 

39— Switch. 


274  JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 

The  digestive  system  and  the  mammary  system  are 
indirectly  related  to  the  production  of  muscle  which 
constitutes  the  food  product  in  the  block  animal.  This 
fact  is  emphasized  in  the  spare  form  and  the  nervous  develop- 
ment of  the  dairy  animal  which  shows  that  the  feed  eaten  is 
not  stored  on  the  body,  but  rather  manufactured  into  milk 
through  the  digestive,  circulatory,  and  mammary  systems. 
The  large  capacious  barrel  for  feed  consumption,  the  strongly 
developed  circulatory  system  indicated  in  the  eyes,  chest,  and 
general  vigor  displayed  by  the  animal  and  the  well-developed 
mammary  system  are  the  three  vital  attributes  for  the 
maximum  production  of  milk. 

A  strong  constitution  indicates  durability  and  vitality, 
which  are  essential  in  any  animal,  constantly  drawing 
on  its  own  food  resources.  A  strong  blood  circulatory 
system  indicates  health,  vigor,  and  the  proper  distribution 
of  the  digested  materials  taken  from  the  feed,  while  a  large 
and  well-developed  mammary  system  is  indicative  of  a 
capacious  manufacturing  plant  for  milk  elaboration.  When 
these  factors  or  parts  of  the  animal  are  properly  developed 
they  form  distinguishing  features  of  unusual  significance. 
The  wedge-shaped  form  of  the  dairy  cow  is  significant  in 
its  indication  of  capacity,  mammary  development,  and 
nerve  force  or  nerve  temperament.  Each  part  of  the 
animal  has  its  own  important  part  in  milk  production.  Any 
one  part  removed  or  impaired  would  seriously  impede  the 
milk-productive  capacity  and  otherwise  injure  the  delicate 
mechanism  of  the  animal. 

Dairy  Function. — The  primary  function  of  the  dairy  cow 
is  to  produce  milk,  and  the  secondary  function  to  reproduce 
herself.  Her  ability  to  accomplish  these  purposes  depends 
on  six  fundamental  points  of  development.  These  are  dairy 
form  or  type,  constitution,  capacity,  nervous  temperament 
or  nerve  force,  the  mammary  system,  and  circulatory  devel- 
opment. A  proper  correlation  of  these  factors  is  necessary 
for  an  animal  to  produce  to  its  maximum  capacity.  The 
fundamental  factor  is  capacity  for  food  consumption.  If 
an  animal  is  limited  in  its  ability  to  consume  food  the  final 
product  or  milk-producing  capacity  is  limited  likewise,  as 


DAIRY  FUNCTION  275 

it  depends  directly  on  the  quantity  of  food  consumed. 
While  the.  producing  abiUty  of  an  animal  may  be  hindered 
through  other  sources  than  limited  food  consumption  and 
a  deficient  mammary  system,  these  two  factors  are  of  the 
utmost  significance. 

A  well-balanced  animal  involving  the  factors  named 
above  will  usually  have  normal  activity  and  ultimate  milk- 
producing  capacity,  although  certain  unknown  factors  may 
impair  or  permanently  retard  one  or  more  of  these  func- 
tions. While  it  is  not  always  possible  to  use  production  as 
a  basis  in  selecting  dairy  cows,  it  is  alwaj^s  desirable  to  do 
so,  especially  when  animals  can  be  selected  having  records 
extending  over  long,  continuous  periods.  It  is  not  possible 
for  a  student  to  follow  this  practice,  neither  has  it  been 
established  in  show  ring  judging  except  under  specialized 
conditions.  Because  of  the  impracticability  of  always 
measuring  the  capacity  of  a  dairy  animal  on  her  actual 
producing  ability,  the  body  form  and  other  exterior  evidences 
of  heavy  and  continuous  production  are  used  as  a  basis 
for  selecting  animals. 

Experience  and  observation  have  taught  that  there  are 
certain  basic  conditions  or  relations  between  heavy  and 
continuous  milk  production.  It  is  on  these  foundation 
principles  that  dairy  cattle  are  judged  by  making  general 
and  scrutinized  examinations  of  the  exterior  form  and 
development.  The  degree  of  productiveness  or  usefulness 
is  determined  by  the  degree  of  development  of  the  factors 
mentioned  above.  Deficiency  or  delicacy  in  one  or  all 
impairs  the  efficiency  of  the  animal  to  the  extent  of  the 
deficiency,  whether  singly  or  combined  in  influence.  The 
judge  of  long  experience  is  able  to  detect  very  accurately 
the  actual  working  capacity  of  an  animal  because  of  the 
known  relation  of  each  factor  to  this  capacity  as  well  as  their 
combined  influence.  Limited  observation  or  experience  can 
only  assume  the  actual  effect  on  production  of  a  deficient 
form,  cramped  digestive  capacity,  weakened  constitution 
or  low  vitalit}',  a  small  mammary  system,  or  a  weak  circu- 
latory system.  A  complete  knowledge  based  on  jears  of 
observation  and  practice  is  essential  to  a  determination  of 


276 


JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


the  value  of  these  factors,  singly  or  combined.  Likewise, 
correct  judgment  on  dairy  form  and  capacity  is  the  result 
of  continuous  practice  in  determining  the  value  of  a  single 
factor  or  its  combined  influence  with  one  or  more  of  the 
others  essential  to  high  and  continuous  production. 

Wedges  of  the  Dairy  Animal. — The  extreme  development  of 
the  dairy  animal  toward  the  wedge-shaped  form  is  significant 
of  factors  not  wholly  understood  by  the  average  person. 
Why  a  dairy  animal  should  be  so  extremely  different  from  a 
block  animal  would  ordinarily  cause  comment,  yet  a  basic 


Fig.  115. 


-Front  wedge  of  the  dairj   <   <       -  i  iwing  the  general  tendency  to 
grow  wider  toward  the  hindquarters. 


understanding  of  this  development  is  comparatively  simple 
and  significant  in  its  meaning.  One  of  the  fundamental 
principles  involved  in  a  heavy  producing  dairy  animal  is  the 
extreme  development  of  the  body  or  barrel  compared  with 
the  size  of  the  animal.  In  a  heavy  producer  the  barrel  is 
wholly  out  of  proportion  with  any  other  part,  region,  or  a 
combination  of  them. 

Viewed  from  three  dift'erent  angles  the  dairy  animal 
presents  three  distinct  wedges,  namely,  the  front  wedge,  the 
side  wedge,    and   the   top   wedge.     The  meaning  of  these 


QUALITY 


277 


terms  is  simple.  They  imply  an  increasing  depth  of  body 
toward  the  rear  as  viewed  from  the  side,  an  increasing 
width  of  body  toward  the  rear  as  viewed  from  in  front,  and 
an  increasing  width  toward  the  floor  of  the  barrel  as  viewed 
from  above.  The  whole  of  this  development  is  significant  of 
barrel  capacity  which  is  one  of  the  real  fundamentals  of  dairy 
production.  It  is  exemplified  in  magnified  body  capacity 
and  in  this  respect  is  widely  different  from  any  other  type 
of  animal. 


Fig.  116. — Side  wedge  of  the  dairy  cow,  showing  the  general  tendency  to 
grow  deeper  toward  the  hindquarters. 


Quality. — The  dairy  animal  should  possess  an  abundance 
of  quality.  It  should  have  a  clean-cut,  refined  appearance 
about  the  head  and  neck  and  sharp,  well-defined  withers. 
The  spine  should  be  spare  and  open,  the  skin  pliable  and 
elastic,  the  hair  fine  and  oily,  and  the  bone  dense  and  fine  in 
texture.  This  attribute  is  important,  not  only  because  of 
its  special  relation  to  the  type  and  refinement  of  the  animal, 
but  because  of  its  influence  on  maintenance  and  cost  of 
production.  A  large,  coarse-boned  dairy  animal  is  seldom 
an  economical  producer.     Although  such  an  animal  may 


278 


JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


produce  large  quantities  of  milk,  it  is  usually  at  a  loss  because 
of  the  excessive  food  requirements  of  a  large,   unrefined 


Fig.  117, 


■Top  wedge  of  the  dairy  cow,  showing  the  general  tendency  to 
grow  wider  toward  the  belly  or  underline. 


CONSTITUTION  279 

animal.  Heavy  framed,  coarse-boned  dairy  animals  usually 
convert  a  larger  comparative  amount  of  food  into  body  fat 
and  maintenance  than  animals  of  fine  texture  and  quality. 

An  examination  for  quality  is  made  by  the  hand  to  deter- 
mine the  pliability  and  elasticity  of  the  skin,  fineness,  and 
texture  of  the  hair.  If  there  is  a  tendency  toward  harshness 
or  dryness  in  the  skin  or  hair  it  is  significant  of  inferior 
quality  or  temporary  ill  health.  Ordinarily  it  is  the  former. 
Other  than  the  examination  made  by  the  hand,  quality  is 
evidenced  in  the  fineness  or  texture  of  the  bone,  clean-cut 
lines,  sharp  withers,  long,  thin  neck,  and  general  refinement 
or  expression.  Some  judges  lay  considerable  stress  on  the 
waxy,  yellowish  condition  of  the  interior  of  the  ears  and  the 
fineness  of  the  hair  thereon.  Guernsey  admirers  are  especially 
ardent  in  their  application  of  this  principle  to  determine 
quality  and  richness  of  milk  in  the  breed. 

Constitution. — The  constitution  of  a  dairy  animal  is  of 
more  than  usual  significance.  The  value  of  such  an  animal 
is  not  only  dependent  on  present  capacity  or  usefulness  but 
on  the  length  of  time  which  production  will  be  normally  and 
profitably  continued.  This  involves  durability  or  vitality.  As 
the  form  of  the  dairy  cow  naturally  precludes  the  highest 
development  in  constitutional  capacity,  it  is  especially  sig- 
nificant that  this  attribute  receive  close  consideration.  While 
a  dairy  animal  need  not  be  weak  in  constitution  or  low^  in 
vitality  the  peculiar  type  of  the  animal  naturally  favors  such 
a  condition.  Naturally  the  wedge-shaped  form  minimizes 
the  space  in  which  the  vital  organs  may  develop  and  perform 
their  function.  Constitution  should  be  equally  correlated 
with  the  other  factors  essential  to  heavy  and  economical 
production.  Naturally  the  development  of  the  body  or 
barrel  and  the  organs  of  milk  production  magnify  these 
parts  and  minimize  the  chest  capacity  on  which  a  vigorous 
constitution  largely  depends. 

Constitution,  as  in  other  animals,  is  evidenced  by  depth 
of  body  in  the  chest  region  and  extreme  width  through  the 
lower  portion  of  the  ribs  and  on  the  chest  floor.  The  true 
dairy  form  involves  a  light  and  spare  development  at  the 
withers,  thus  to  perfect  the  true  wedge-shape  accepted  as 


280  JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 

a  fundamental  requisite  of  dairy  form  and  production. 
Other  than  this  indication  constitution  is  evidenced  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  the  beef  animal.  The  muzzle  should  be 
large,  broad,  well  developed,  the  eyes  large  and  bright,  the 
skin  pliable  and  elastic,  the  hair  thick,  mossy,  and  evenly 
distributed  over  the  body.  The  bone  should  be  dense,  fine, 
and  show  every  indication  of  refinement  and  form,  although 
not  to  the  extent  of  delicacy.  If  there  is  weakness  in  the 
vital  parts  of  the  animal,  and  especially  in  the  dairy  animal,  it 
is  an  imperfect  machine  and  therefore  cannot  perform  its 
function  continuously  in  a  satisfactory  manner. 

Nervous  Temperament. — The  term,  nervous  temperament, 
is  significant  of  the  ability  of  an  animal  to  utilize  its  food 
other  than  that  required  for  body  maintenance  completely 
for  milk  production.  It  represents  the  exact  opposite  of 
the  conditions  which  most  nearly  meet  maximum  beef  pro- 
duction. The  beef  animal  is  lymphatic  in  temperament 
and  utilizes  its  food  for  body  maintenance  and  muscle 
and  fat  formation.  The  dairy  animal  is  nervous  in  tem- 
perament and  uses  its  food  for  milk  production,  which 
is  contingent  on  directing  the  largest  possible  part  of  the 
food  nutrients  for  this  purpose.  The  nervous  tempera- 
ment is  exemplified  in  the  spare,  open,  conformation.  The 
head  should  be  expressive  of  character,  and  clean  and  free 
from  excess  flesh.  The  neck  should  be  long  and  thin,  the 
withers  sharp,  the  spine  open,  the  ribs  wide,  the  hook  points 
prominent,  the  thighs  thin  and  incurving,  the  rear  flanks 
high  and  the  barrel  large.  All  of  these  points  are  indicative 
of  nerve  force,  showing  that  the  food  is  elaborated  or  used 
otherwise  than  on  the  body. 

Capacity. — Capacity  in  its  strictest  sense  signifies  the 
ability  of  an  animal  to  perform  its  work  with  a  minimum 
of  food  and  exertion  on  the  working  organism,  with  a 
maximum  resulting  production.  An  animal  without  barrel 
capacity  for  the  storage  of  large  quantities  of  food  will 
be  unproductive  sooner  or  later  from  the  standpoint 
of  profitable  returns;  Usually  an  animal  will  maintain 
average  development  for  a  short  time,  but  the  heavy  strain 
of  milk  jjroduction  soon  saps  the  vitality  of  the  small  animal 


CAPACITY 


281 


lacking  in  capacity  for  food  consumption.  The  result  is 
seen  directly  in  the  lessened  milk  flow  which  eventually 
eliminates  such  an  animal  from  herds  maintained  on  a 
profitable  basis.  In  the  early  stages  of  lactation  an  animal 
with  comparatively  small  capacity  may  produce  a  reasonably 
large  quantity  of  milk.  Later  in  the  period,  however, 
owing  to  the  lack  of  food-consumptive  ability  and  digestive 
capacity,  the  mammary  system  ultimately  subsides  and  fails 
to  produce  until  again  stimulated  by  reproduction. 


Fig.  118. — Nervous  temperament  exemplified  in  the  Jersey  bull.  Note 
the  keen  expression  of  the  eyes,  the  finely  drawn  features,  and  the  activity 
and  energy  displayed  in  the  general  demeanor. 


Capacity  as  Indicated  hy  Milk  and  Butter  Standards. — 
The  adoption  of  yearly  milk  and  butter  fat  tests  is  significant 
that  the  leading  dairy  breed  associations  recognize  the  need 
for  such  data  in  determining  the  real  practical  value  or 
capacity  of  an  animal.  It  may  be  possible  in  judging  dairy 
attainments  to  be  mistaken  in  the  real  productive  capacity, 
as  evidenced  by  exterior  points  or  factors.  With  the  aid  of 
the  standard,  if  properly  applied,  the  value  of  an  animal  can 
be  determined  absolutely.  Student  or  show  ring  judging  must 
be  done  by  measuring  an  animal  by  an  adopted  system, 


282 


JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


as  it  is  impossible  to  determine  the  productive  value  by 
applied  tests  in  the  modern  show  ring.  If  it  were  possible 
to  develop  such  a  system  it  would  be  highly  desirable  from 
several  viewpoints.  However,  capacity  may  be  very  accu- 
rately rated  or  determined  if  the  examiner  has  a  keen  knowl- 
edge of  true  dairy  form  and  its  correlated  functions. 

Mammary  System. — The  mammary  system  represents  one 
of  the  real  fundamentals  of  the  dairy  cow.     The  animal  may 


Fig.  119. — A  typical  udder  exemplified  in  the  Holsteiii-Friesian  cow.     Note 
size,  length,  shape,  general  balance,  and  capacity  of  the  cow. 

be  perfectly  developed  from  the  standpoint  of  dairy  form 
and  nervous  development,  yet  if  the  mammary  system  is 
insufficiently  developed  or  faulty  for  any  reason,  the  machine 
is  imperfect.  After  the  food  is  taken  into  the  stomach 
it  is  digested,  absorbed,  and  finally  elaborated  into  milk 
through  the  mammary  system.  The  blood  carries  the 
assimilated  food  products  to  the  mammary  system  where 
they  are  manufactured  into  milk.  If  there  is  not  sufficient 
development  in  the  mammary  system  to  ultilize  these 
products,  the  animal  is  imperfect  from  the  standpoint  of 


MAMMARY  SYSTEM 


283 


efficiency  to  the  extent  of  the  difference  in  the  capacity  of 
the  animal  form  and  the  mammary  system. 

The  udder  of  the  dairy  cow  is  the  important  part  of  the 
machinery,  as  it  is  within  the  udder  that  the  milk  is  elaborated. 
The  size  of  it  is  indicative  of  capacity  for  milk  production, 
the  same  as  the  size  of  the  barrel  is  indicative  of  the  capacity 
for  food  consumption.  A  typical  dairy  cow  should  have  the 
udder  attached  high  behind.  It  should  extend  forward 
sufficiently  to  allow  the  teats  to  be  placed  at  least  six  inches 
apart.     The  floor  of  the  udder  should  be  long,  broad  and 


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B'^^m 

BH 

^^Hh  1  ^M 

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Fig.  120. — (a)  a  pendulous  udder  with  small,  wart-like  teats,  lacks 
capacity  and  is  easily  injured;  (6)  a  small  funnel-shaped  udder  lacking  in 
capacity.     Cows  with  such  udders  usually  have  a  short  lactation  period. 


level,  as  such  development  furnishes  the  largest  space  for 
the  absorption  of  food  nutrients  for  milk  elaboration  from 
the  blood.  A  small,  fleshy  udder  attached  low  or  just 
between  the  legs,  with  a  short  distention  and  extending  in 
a  funnel  shape  from  the  underline  indicates  small  milking 
capacity. 

The  mammary  veins  are  important,  as  their  size  and 
development  indicates  the  amount  of  blood  which  passes 
through  the  udder,  this  regulating  the  supply  of  nutrients 
for  the  manufacture  of  milk.  The  mammary  veins  should 
be  long,  large,  tortuous,  and  have  numerous  branches  which 
enter  the  body  through  the  mammary  orifices.    These  should 


284  JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 

be  large  to  accommodate  the  mammary  veins  and  the  branches 
extending  therefrom.  An  animal  with  cramped  mammary 
development  and  small  barrel  capacity  cannot  produce 
economically  because  the  machine  is  essentially  imperfect. 
If  both  the  original  intake  and  outlet  of  the  animal  are  so 
developed  it  is  impossible  to  produce  a  normal  continuous 
flow  of  milk,  as  the  one  condition  reacts  directly  against  the 
other. 

Durability  and  Persistency. — In  no  class  of  animals,  with 
the  possible  exception  of  the  horse,  is  durability  as  essential  as 
in  the  dairy  animal.  Her  work  is  not  only  at  a  high  tension 
for  a  large  portion  of  the  year  but  in  the  heaviest  producers 
it  is  so  practically  during  the  entire  year.  A  dairy  animal 
usually  rests  for  about  one  month  to  six  weeks  from  the 
standpoint  of  direct  milk  production.  However,  during 
this  time  she  is  usually  nourishing  a  fetus  which  will  soon 
turn  the  maternal  functions  to  milk  production  again  and 
thus  entail  the  severest  labor  through  which  any  animal 
must  go.  The  ability  to  withstand  this  pressure  is  a  meas- 
ure of  her  capacity  and  value  as  a  dairy  animal.  The 
brood  mare  works  and  nourishes  a  fetus  and  the  colt,  but 
she  is  not  compelled  to  forego  the  severe  strain  which  the 
dairy  cow  does  during  heavy  milk  production  and  through 
gestation.  The  beef  animal,  the  sheep  and  the  hog,  have  the 
strain  of  reproduction  but  they  are  not  compelled  to  undergo 
the  severe  and  persistent  work  of  heavy  milk  production 
during  this  period.  The  dairy  cow,  therefore,  is  subjected 
to  a  severer  strain  than  any  other  animal,  all  of  which  involves 
the  highest  development  of  durability  and  persistency. 

Structural  Form  and  Examination. — The  structural  form  of 
the  dairy  animal  implies  certain  specific  conditions  which  are 
best  explained  by  giving  a  detailed  description  of  these  parts. 

Head  and  Neck. — The  head  of  the  dairy  cow  should  be  long, 
narrow,  intelligent  in  expression,  and  show  every  evidence  of 
femininity.  The  lines  of  the  head  should  be  clear  cut  and 
generally  expressive  of  life,  vigor,  and  activity. 

The  forehead  should  be  broad  and  flat  or  slightly  concave. 
This  is  indicative  of  intelligence  and  capacity  in  the  develop- 
ment of  nerve  force. 


STRUCTURAL  FORM  AXD  EXAMIXATION         285 

The  face  should  be  straight,  except  as  specifically  altered 
by  breed  qualifications.     Quality  should  he  apparent. 


Fig.  121. — Cross-section  of  mammary  glands  of  cow:  a,  body  of  gland; 
b,  lactiferous  sinus;  c,  cavity  of  teat;  d,  duct  of  teat;  e,  intermammarj'  groove; 
/,  septum  between  glands;  g,  supramammary  fat.  (Courtesy  of  L.  W. 
Sisson,  from  Anatomy  of  Domestic  Animals.) 


286  JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 

The  eyes  should  be  large,  clear,  bright,  and  indicative 
of  nerve  force  and  general  vitality.  Small,  dull  eyes  are 
objectionable,  showing  weak  constitution  and,  therefore,  lack 
of  vitality  or  durability. 

The  ears  should  be  medium  in  size  and  covered  with  fine, 
soft  hair.  The  interior  should  be  waxy  and  covered  with  a 
very  fine  coat  of  soft,  oily,  silky  hair.  This  is  considered  to 
be  a  good  indication  of  quality. 

The  horns  should  be  developed  according  to  the  breed. 
Under  any  condition  they  should  be  medium  in  size,  fine  in 
texture,  and  correspond  with  the  refinement  of  the  animal 
throughout. 

The  muzzle  should  be  broad,  deep,  and  should  show  a 
slight  enlargement,  thus  giving  the  head  the  appearance 
of  being  incurving  between  the  eyes  and  the  junction  with 
the  muzzle.  A  straight,  coarse  head  and  a  pointed  muzzle 
are  very  objectionable. 

The  nostrils  should  be  large  and  open,  thus  indicating  a 
large  supply  of  air  into  the  lungs. 

The  neck  should  be  long,  and  lean,  there  being  no  indi- 
cation of  beefiness  or  coarseness.  There  should  be  a  clear- 
cut  junction  of  the  head  with  the  neck.  A  rather  long,  thin 
neck  with  incurving  lines  is  indicative  of  quality,  general 
refinement,  and  dairy  capacity. 

Forequarters. — The  forequarters  of  the  animal  are  sig- 
nificant, as  they  indicate  in  a  large  measure  the  conformity 
of  the  animal  to  the  wedge-shaped  form  which  is  accepted 
as  the  true  dairy  type. 

The  shoulders  should  be  long,  light,  smoothly  laid  in, 
narrow  on  top,  and  gradually  broaden  toward  the  region  of 
the  chest  floor.  Heavy,  coarse  shoulders  are  not  only 
indicative  of  non-conformity  to  the  true  dairy  type  but  they 
indicate  coarseness  of  quality  and  lack  of  general  refinement. 
Any  indication  toward  fulness  in  the  shoulders  exhibits  a 
tendency  to  beefiness. 

The  brisket  should  be  rather  light,  spare,  and  otherwise 
lacking  in  prominence.  An  extended  brisket  with  fulness 
and  compactness  is  indicative  of  beef-producing  qualities. 

The  legs  should  be  straight,  and  the  bone  dense  and  fine. 
The  canons  should  be  clear  cut  and  otherwise  indicative  of 


STRUCTURAL  FORM  AND  EXAMINATION         287 

quality  and  refinement.  A  heavy  bone  with  coarse,  undefined 
joints  indicates  plain  quality. 

The  feet  should  be  medium  in  size,  strong,  and  well  sup- 
ported with  upright  pasterns. 

Body. — The  body  of  the  dairy  animal  includes  the  chest, 
chine,  ribs,  loin,  flanks,  and  navel,  each  of  which  should 
have  distinctive  qualities  for  best  results. 

The  chest  development  of  the  dairy  animal  is  of  special 
significance  because  of  its  relation  to  constitutional  develop- 
ment. A  narrow,  shallow  chest  indicates  small  lung  capacity. 
The  severe  and  continuous  strain  which  is  placed  on  the  dairy 
animal  necessitates  a  deep,  full  chest,  broad  on  the  floor, 
where  the  dairy  animal  gets  the  major  portion  of  its  chest 
development.  Width  is  secured  on  the  floor  of  the  chest 
rather  than  above,  as  in  the  beef  animal. 

The  chine  should  be  narrow,  light,  the  spines  sharp,  open, 
and  placed  wide  apart.  The  back  should  be  straight  and 
strong  to  insure  capacity  in  maintaining  a  strong,  repro- 
ductive and  mammary  system.  A  low  back  is  objectionable, 
although  not  as  faulty  as  in  the  beef  animal.  The  loin 
should  be  broad,  flat,  long  and  spare  of  flesh.  Openness  of 
form  throughout  the  back  and  loin  region  is  one  of  the  chief 
indications  of  nerve  force. 

The  ribs  should  be  long,  deep,  and  arched.  The  rib 
development  is  especially  significant  in  the  dairy  animal 
because  of  its  relation  to  barrel  capacity.  Short  ribs  closely 
spaced  show  objectionable  form,  this  being  characteristic  of 
cramped  capacity  and  compactness,  two  attributes  not  con- 
sistent with  dairy-cow  development. 

The  flanks  should  be  deep  and  open.  The  hindflank 
especially  should  be  high  and  open  to  accommodate  the 
udder.  Low,  full  flanks  are  objectionable,  as  they  show  a 
beefy  tendency. 

Hindquarters. — The  hindquarters  are  divided  into  the 
hips,  rump,  thighs,  and  feet  and  legs,  as  designated  in  the 
following  descriptions : 

The  hips  should  be  wide  apart  and  prominent,  thus 
showing  the  absence  of  any  beefy  tendency.  Smooth, 
compact  hips  exemplify  the  beef  type  of  animal  and  should 
therefore  not  be  a  characteristic  of  the  dair}'  animal. 


288  JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 

The  rumy  should  be  long,  broad,  and  level.  The  tail- 
head  should  be  smooth  and  show  refinement;  otherwise, 
it  is  indicative  of  coarse,  undefined  form.  The  pin-bones 
should  be  high,  wide  apart,  and  spare  in  their  surrounding 
development. 

The  thighs  should  be  long,  lean,  and  incurving.  They 
should  be  the  exact  opposite  of  the  development  in  the  beef 
animal.  Heavy,  coarse  thighs  are  seriously  objectionable, 
both  from  the  standpoint  of  quality  and  nerve  development. 

The  legs  should  be  straight,  strong,  and  well  supported 
on  feet  of  medium  size  with  strong,  upright  pasterns. 

The  tail  should  be  long,  fine,  and  terminate  in  a  switch 
with  hair  of  fine  quality.  Some  breeders  lay  considerable 
stress  on  the  length  of  the  tail,  maintaining  that  it  shows 
deep  development  in  dairy  capacity. 

Mammary  System. — The  mammary  system  includes  the 
udder  proper,  the  mammary  veins,  wells,  teats,  and  escutch- 
eon. These  parts  have  a  significant  bearing  on  the  capacity 
of  the  animal  and  are  described  in  detail  in  the  following : 

The  udder  should  be  large,  attached  high  behind,  extend 
well  forward,  and  be  carried  closely  to  the  body.  A  pendu- 
lous funnel-shaped  udder  is  seriously  objectionable.  The 
udder  should  not  exhibit  any  tendency  to  beefiness.  The 
skin  should  be  pliable,  elastic,  and  the  hair  smooth  and  fine 
in  quality.  A  fleshy  udder  covered  with  heavy,  tight  skin 
and  long  coarse  hair  is  indicative  of  beef-producing  qualifica- 
tions. The  length  of  the  udder  is  important.  It  should  ex- 
tend well  forward,  the  floor  should  be  level,  and  the  quarters 
well  balanced.  This  is  all  conducive  to  maximum  capacity 
in  milk  production. 

The  mammary  veins  should  be  long,  large,  tortuous, 
and  have  numerous  branches.  This  indicates  a  strong 
circulatory  development  which  is  one  of  the  essentials  in 
high  productive  capacity. 

The  mammary  orifices  should  be  large  for  the  entrance  of 
the  mammary  veins  in  the  body.  Small  mammary  orifices 
are  indicative  usually  of  small  mammary  veins  and  are 
therefore  objectionable. 

The  teats  should  be  medium  and  uniform  in  size,  evenly 


STRUCTURAL  FORM  AND  EXAMINATION  289 

placed,  and  well  balanced.     Large  teats,  uneven  in  size  and 

unevenly  placed  are  very  objectionable. 

The  escutcheon,  should  be  high  and  spreading.     Its  chief 

indication  is  in  the  development  of   a  large,  well-balanced 

udder. 

Score  Card  for  Dairy  Cattle. 

Perfect  score. 

General  Appearance — 24  Points. 

Weight:  .      • 4 

Disposition:  quiet,  gentle 2 

Form:  triangular,  wedge-shaped,  symmetrical,  straight   top 

line 6 

Quality:  free  from  coarseness  throughout;  skin  soft,  pliable; 

secretions  abundant;  hair  fine 6 

Temperament:  inherent  tendency  to  dairy  performance,  show- 
ing economic  use  of  food  nutrients 6 

Head  and  Neck — 8  Points. 

Muzzle:  broad 1 

Jaw:  strong,  firmly  joined 1 

Face:  medium  length,  clean    . 1 

Forehead:  broad  between  eyes,  dishing 1 

Eyes:  large,  full,  mild,  bright 1 

Ears:  medium  size,  fine  texture;  secretions  oily  and  abundant, 

yellow  color 1 

Throat:  clean 1 

Neck:  long,  spare,  smoothly  joined  to  shoulders,  free  from 

dewlap 1 

Forequarters — -7  Points. 

Withers:  narrow,  sharp 3 

Shoulders:  sloping,  smooth;  brisket  fight 3 

Forelegs:  straight,  clean,  weU  set  under  body 1 

Body — 25  Points. 

Crops:  free  from  fleshiness 1 

Chest:  deep,  roomy;  floor  broad 6 

Back:  straight,  strong;  vertebras  open 3 

Ribs:  long,  deep,  sprung,  wide  apart 3 

Barrel:  deep,  long,  capacious 10 

Loin:  broad,  strong 2 

Hindquarters — 12  Points. 

Hips:  prominent,  wide  apart 1 

Rump:  long,  level,  not  sloping 4 

Pin-hones:  wide  apart 1 

Tail:  neatly  set  on,  long,  tapering 1 

Thighs:  spare,  not  fleshy 3 

Hindlegs:  well  apart,  giving  ample  room  for  udder      ...  2 

Mammary  Development — 24  Points. 

Udder:  large,  very  flexible,  attached  high  behind,   carrying 

well  forward;  quarters  even,  not  cut  up  .      .      .      .      .      .  10 

Teats:  wide  apart,  uniformly  placed,  convenient  size        .      .  4 
Mammary   Veins:  large   tortuous,    extending   well   forward, 

branching 4 

Mammary  Orifices:  large 6 

Total 100 

19 


290  JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 

Breed  Characteristics. — The  dairy  breeds  of  cattle  are 
characterized  by  the  following  breed  marks  including 
weight,  quality,  constitution,  conformation,  temperament, 
and  adaptation. 

Jersey. — The  Jersey  breed  originated  in  the  Island  of 
Jersey  in  the  English  Channel.  This  breed  has  attained 
wide  popularity  and  is  adapted  to  a  variety  of  conditions. 
The  weight  of  mature  Jersey  cows  ranges  from  800  to  1000 
pounds.  It  is  one  of  the  smallest  of  the  recognized  dairy 
breeds. 


Fig.  122. — ^A  Jersey  cow  with  breediness  and  capacity. 

The  horns  in  the  bull  are  rather  short  and  strong.  On  the 
cow  they  are  longer  with  greater  curvature.  The  color  of  the 
Jersey  is  variable.  The  base  of  the  body  color  is  usually  fawn. 
However,  there  are  numerous  shades,  such  as  a  yellowish, 
brownish,  grayish,  reddish  or  silvery  fawn,  whiclj  may  charac- 
terize the  breed.  In  some  animals,  especially  bulls,  a  large 
part  of  the  body  may  be  nearly  black.  Such  animals  are 
usually  characterized  by  dark  or  black  heads,  necks,  and 
shoulders,  thighs,  flanks,  or  other  combinations.  Some 
animals  are  practically  all  dark  brown  or  black.  The  quality 
of  the  Jersey  is  good  and  its  skin  secretions  are  usually  very 


BREED  CHARACTERISTICS  291 

.  much  in  evidence  from  the  standpoint  of  pHability  and 
elasticity.  The  nervous  temperament  is  highly  developed. 
Specimens  of  the  breed  are  not  considered  heavy  producers 
ordinarily  but  the  quality  of  the  milk  is  considerably  above 
the  average.  One  of  the  common  faults  of  the  Jersey  is  the 
slack  development  in  the  forequarters  of  the  udder.  Delicacy 
in  constitution  is  also  a  recognized  fault.  The  Jersey  is  widely 
adapted,  both  as  a  cow  for  city  use  and  milk  and  butter 
production  in  general. 

Standard  of  Excellexce  and  Scale  of  Points  for  Jersey 
Cattle. 

Bull. 

Head:  Points. 

Broad,  medium  length;  face  dished;  narrow  between  horns; 
horns  medium  in  size  and  incurving o 

Muzzle  broad,  nostrils  open,  eyes  full  and  bold;  entire  expres- 
sion one  of  vigor,  resolution  and  masculinity      ....         5 
Neck: 

Medium  length,  with  full  crest  at  maturity;  clean  at  throat  .         7 
Body: 

Shoulders  full  and  strong,  good  distance  through  from  point 
to  point,  with  well-defined  withers;  chest  deep  and  full 
between  and  just  back  of  forelegs 15 

Barrel  long,  of  good  depth  and  breadth,  with  strong,  rounded, 
well-sprung  ribs 15 

Back  straight  and  strong 5 

Rump  of  good  length  and  proportion  to  size  of  body,  and 
level  from  hip-bones  to  rump-bones 7 

Loins  broad  and  strong;  hips  rounded,  and  of  medium  width 
compared  with  female 7 

Thighs  rather  flat,  well  cut  up  behind  high,  arched  flank  3 

Legs  proportionate  to  size  and  of  fine  quaUty,  well  apart, 
with  good  feet,  and  not  to  weave  or  cross  in  walking    .      .         5 
Rudimentary  Teats: 

Well  placed 2 

Hide  : 

Loose  and  mellow 2 

Tail: 

Thin,  long,  reaching  the  hock,  with  good  switch,  not  coarse 

or  high  at  setting-on 2 

Size: 

Mature  bulls,  1200  to  1500  pounds 5 

General  Appearance: 

Thoroughly  masculine  in  character,  with  a  harmonious  blend- 
ing of  the  parts  to  each  other;  thoroughly  robust,  and  such 
an  animal  as  in  a  herd  of  wild  cattle  would  likely  become 
master  of  the  herd  by  the  law  of  natural  selection  and  sur- 
vival of  the  fittest 15 

Total 100 


292  JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 

Cow. 

Dairy  Teynperament  and  Constitution. 

Points. 

Head: 

Medium  size,  lean;  face  dished;  broad  between  eyes;  horns 
medium  size,  incurving 3 

Eyes  full  and  placid;  ears  medium  size,  fine,  carried  alert; 
muzzle  broad,  with  wide,  open  nostrils  and  muscular  lips; 

jaw  strong 4 

Neck: 

Thin,  rather  long,  with  clean  throat,  neatly  joined  to  head 

and  shoulders 4 

Body: 

Shoulders  light,  good  distance  through  from  point  to  point, 
but  thin  at  withers;  chest  deep  and  full  between  and  just 
back  of  forelegs 5 

Ribs  amply  sprung  and  wide  apart,  giving  wedge  shape,  with 
deep,  large  abdomen,  firmly  held  up,  with  strong  muscular 
development 10 

Back  straight  and  strong,  with  prominent  spinal  processes; 
loins  broad  and  strong 5 

Rump  long  to  tail-setting,  and  level  from  hip-bones  to  rump- 
bones  6 

Hip-bones  high  and  wide  apart 3 

Thighs  flat  and  wide  apart,  giving  ample  room  for  udder       .         3 

Legs  proportionate  to  size  and  of  fine  quality,  well  apart, 
with  good  feet,  and  not  to  weave  or  cross  in  walking    .      .         2 

Hide  loose  and  mellow 2 

Tail  thin,  long,  with  good  switch,  not  coarse  at  setting-on     .         1 

Mammary  Development. 
Udder: 

Large  size,  flexible  and  not  fleshy 6 

Broad,  level  or  spherical,  not  deeply  cut  between  teats    .      .         4 
Fore  udder  fuU  and  well  rounded,  running  well  forward  of 

front  teats 10 

Hind  udder  well  rounded,  and  well  out  and  up  behind      .      .         6 
Teats: 

Of  good  and  uniform  length  and  size,  regularly  and  squarely 

placed 8 

Milk  Veins: 

Large,  long,  tortuous  and  elastic,  entering  large  and  numerous 

orifices 4 

Size: 

Mature  cows,  800  to  1000  pounds 4 

General  Appearance: 

A  symmetrical  balancing  of  all  the  parts,  and  a  proportion  of 
parts  to  each  other,  depending  on  size  of  animal,  with  the 
general  appearance  of  a  high-class  animal,  with  capacity 
for  food  and  productiveness  at  pail 10 

Total 100 


BREED  CHARACTERISTICS 


293 


Guernsey. — The  Guernsey  breed  originated  in  the  Island 
of  Guernsey,  which  is  located  near  the  Island  of  Jersey,  in 
the  English  Channel.  In  many  respects  the  Guernsey  is  very 
much  like  the  Jersey  breed,  although  the  former  is  larger  and 
somewhat  stronger  in  constitution.  The  production  of  milk 
and  butter-fat  is  about  on  a  par  w^ith  the  Jerse.y.  The  weight 
of  the  Guernsey  cow  ranges  from  950  to  1050  pounds,  being 
somewhat  larger  than  the  Jersey  breed.  The  color  is  variable, 
a  reddish  shade  of  fawn  prevailing.    Reddish  and  yellowish 


Fig.   123. — A  Guernsey  cow  exhibiting  striking  dairy  capacity. 


fawn  are  color  characteristics.  These  colors  are  often  broken 
by  white,  which  usually  occurs  on  the  lower  part  of  the  body 
and  on  the  legs.  The  muzzle  is  buff  or  flesh  color  and 
the  horns  are  light  or  amber.  The  horns  in  the  bull  are 
somew^hat  shorter  than  in  the  cow.  The  temperament 
is  superior,  the  dairy  temperament  being  characteristic 
of  both  sexes  of  the  breed.  The  quality  of  the  Guernsey 
is  excellent.  It  has  a  mellow,  elastic  skin  and  rather  fine 
hair.  As  a  whole  it  is  somewhat  coarser  than  the  Jersey, 
although  it  cannot  be  greatly  criticised.    The  mellow,  elastic 


294  JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 

skin,  yellowish  color  and  secretions  are  considered  to  be  of 
great  importance  by  advocates  of  the  breed.  The  lack  of 
uniform  breeding  qualities  and  strong  udder  development, 
chiefly  in  front,  are  the  main  criticisms. 

Standard  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of  Points  for  Guernsey 

Cattle. 

Bull. 

Counts. 

Dairy  Temperament,  Constitution — 38  Points. 

Clean-cut,  lean  face;  strong,  sinewy  jaw;  wide  muzzle  with 
wide-open  nostrils;  full,  bright  eye  with  quiet  and  gentle 
expression;  forehead  long  and  broad 5 

Long,  mascuhne  neck  with  strong  juncture  to  head;  clean 
tlu-oat.  Backbone  rising  well  between  shoulder-blades; 
large  rugged  spinal  processes,  indicating  good  develop- 
ment of  the  spinal  cord 5 

Pelvis  arching  and  wide;  rump  long;  wide,  strong  structure 
of  spine  at  setting  of  tail.  Long,  thin  tail  with  good  switch; 
thin,  incurving  thighs 5 

Ribs  amply  and  fully  sprung  and  wide  apart,  giving  an  open 
relaxed  conformation;  thin,  arching  flank 5 

Abdomen  large  and  deep,  with  strong  muscular  and  navel 
development,  indicative  of  capacity  and  vitahty      ...        15 

Hide  firm  yet  loose,  with  an  oily  feeling  and  texture,  but  not 
thick 3 

Dairy  Prepotency — 15  Points. 

As  shown  by  having  a  great  deal  of  vigor,  style,  alertness, 
and  resolute  appearance 15 

Rudimentaries  and  Milk  Veins — ^10  Points. 

Rudimentaries  of  good  size,  squarely  and  broadly  placed  in 
front  of,  and  free  from,  scrotum.     Milk  veins  prominent   .        10 

Indicating  Color  of  Milk  in  Offspring — 15  Points. 

Skin  deep  yellow  in  ear,  on  end  of  bone  of  tail,  at  base  of 
horns  and  body  generally;  hoofs  amber-colored        ...       15 

Symmetry  and  Size — 22  Points. 

Color  of  hair,  a  shade  of  fawn  with  white  markings.  Cream- 
colored  nose.  Horns  amber-colored,  curving  and  not 
coarse 8 

Size  for  the  breed:  Mature  bulls  four  years  old  or  over, 
about  1500  pounds 4 

General  appearance  is  indicative  of  the  power  to  beget 
animals  of  strong  dairy  qualities 10 

Total 100 


BREED  CHARACTERISTICS  295 

Cow. 

Counts. 

Dairy  Temperament,  Constitution — 38  Points. 

Clean-cut,  lean  face;  strong,  sinewy  jaw;  wide  muzzle  with 
wide-open  nostrils;  full,  bright  eye  with  quiet  and  gentle 
expression;  forehead  long  and  broad 5 

Long,  thin  neck  with  strong  juncture  to  head;  clean  throat. 
Backbone  rising  well  between  shoulder-blades;  large,  rugged 
spinal  processes,  indicating  good  development  of  the  spinal 
cord 5 

Pelvis  arching  and  wide;  rump  long;  wide,  strong  structure 
of  spine  at  setting  on  of  tail.  Long,  thin  tail  with  good 
switch.     Thin,  incurving  thighs 5 

Ribs  amply  and  fully  sprung  and  wide  apart,  giving  an  open, 
relaxed  conformation;  thin,  arching  flanks 5 

Abdomen  large  and  deep,  with  strong  muscular  and  navel 
development,  indicative  of  capacity  and  vitality      ...        15 

Hide  firm  yet  loose,  with  an  oily  feeling  and  texture,  but  not 

thick 3 

Milking  Marks  Denoting  Quantity  of  Flow — 10  Points. 

Escutcheon  wide  on  thighs;  high  and  broad,  with  thigh  ovals        2 

Milk  veins  long,  crooked,  branching  and  prominent,  with 

large  or  deep  wells 8 

Udder  Formation — 26  Points. 

Udder  full  in  front 8 

Udder  full  and  well  up  behind 8 

Udder  of  large  size  and  capacity 4 

Teats  well  apart,  squarely  placed,  and  of  good  and  even 

size 6 

Indicating  Color  of  Milk — 15  Points. 

Skin  deep  yellow  in  ear,  on  end  of  bone  of  tail,  at  base  of 
horns,  on  udder,  teats,  and  body  generally.  Hoof,  amber- 
colored      15 

Milking  Marks  Denoting  Quality  of  Flow — 6  Points. 

Udder  showing  plenty  of  substance  but  not  too  meaty     .      .  6 

Symmetry  and  Size — 5  Points. 

Color  of  hair  a  shade  of  fawn,  with  white  markings.  Cream- 
colored  nose.  Horns  amber-colored,  small,  curved,  and  not 
coarse 3 

Size  for  the  breed:  Mature  cows,  four  years  old  or  over, 
about  1050  pounds 2 

Total 100 


EXPLANATORY  NOTES  ON  GUERNSEY  BREED  BY  AMERICAN 
GUERNSEY  CATTLE  CLUB. 

The  Guernsey  should  be:  First.  A  dairy  animal  with  a 
distinctive  dairy  temperament  and  conformation,  having  a 
strong,  nervy  structure  with  a  corresponding  flow  of  nervous 
energy,  and  every  indication  of  capacity  and  vitality. 


296  JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 

Second.  In  color  of  hair,  a  shade  of  fawn,  with  white  on 
limbs  and  under  part  of  body  are  considered  the  prevailing 
markings,  and  some  degree  of  uniformity  is  desirable. 

Third.  One  of  the  important  distinguishing  features  of 
the  breed  is  the  presence  of  a  yellow  color  in  the  pigment  of 
the  skin,  which  is  indicative  of  rich  golden  color  in  the  milk. 
This  is  very  pronounced  in  the  Guernsey  and  held  by  her  to 
the  greatest  extent  under  all  conditions  of  stabling  and 
feed.  The  intensity  of  this  trait  is  more  marked  in  some 
animals  and  families  than  in  others,  but  it  should  be  kept  at 
the  highest  standard.  It  is  fast  being  recognized  that  this 
color  is  accompanied  by  a  superior  flavor  in  the  milk  and  thus 
in  the  butter. 

Dairy  Temperament.— ^y  "dairy  temperament"  is 
meant  a  strong  over-ruling  predisposition  or  tendency  to 
turn  the  consumption  of  food  toward  the  production  of 
milk  with  a  high  content  of  solids,  especially  butter-fat, 
as  against  the  constitutional  tendency  so  often  seen  to  turn 
food  into  flesh.  Even  in  the  strongest  dairy  breeds  there 
are  more  or  less  frequent  out-crops  in  male  and  female  of 
the  flesh-making  temperament.  To  breed  from  such 
animals,  while  we  are  striving  to  establish  a  prepotent  dairy 
temperament  or  tendency,  is  not  wise.  All  cattle  bred 
specifically  for  dairy  purposes  should  possess  a  clear  and 
decided  dairy  temperament,  for  it  is  that  quality  of  character 
we  most  desire  to  establish,  enlarge,  and  perpetuate  in  the 
Guernsey  cow. 

This  is  especially  indicated  by  the  shape  of  the  head, 
showing  brain  capacity,  wide  muzzle,  open  nostril,  full, 
bright  eyes,  feminine  neck,  and  a  construction  of  the  back- 
bone indicating  a  strong  flow  of  nerve  power  and  support 
from  the  brain  to  all  of  the  maternal  organs. 

Constitution. — In  breeding  our  domestic  animals,  especially 
for  long  service,  like  the  dairy  cow,  it  is  very  important  that 
they  should  have  abundant  vital  power  which  we  call 
"constitution."  But  constitution  must  be  judged  and 
measured  by  the  peculiar  function  the  animal  is  bred  to  fulfil. 

With  the  race  horse  the  function  is  speed;  with  the  steer, 
the  laying  on  of  flesh;  with  the  dairy  cow,  the  production  of 


BREED  CHARACTERISTICS  297 

milk  solids.  In  all  these  various  functions,  the  animal 
that  is  to  represent  any  one  of  them  must  show  not  only 
large  capacity  in  the  line  of  that  function,  but  also  the 
ability  to  endure  long  and  well  the  strain  of  such  function, 
and  keep  in  good  health.  Constitution  is  best  indicated  by  a 
full  development  at  the  navel,  and  strong  abdominal  walls, 
showing  that  the  animal  when  in  a  prenatal  state  was 
abundantly  nourished  by  the  mother  through  a  well- 
developed  umbilical  cord. 

Prepotency. — In  the  scale  for  bulls,  for  the  first  time,  we 
believe,  in  the  history  of  dair^^  breeds,  this  point  is  intro- 
duced. The  reason  we  have  included  it  is  that  "prepotency" 
is  the  chief  consideration  in  the  selection  of  all  male  breeding 
animals.  The  pedigree  and  conformation  is  often  all  that 
can  be  desired,  but  because  the  bull  is  lacking  in  prepotent 
breeding  power  he  is  an  expensive  failure.  This  quality 
is  in  a  sense  difficult  to  perceive  or  describe,  but  we  know 
certain  animals  have  it  in  high  degree  and  others  fail  of  it 
completely.  It  is  fairly  well  indicated  by  vigor  of  appear- 
ance, strong  resolute  bearing,  and  abundant  nervous  energy. 
We  would  distinguish  this  from  an  ugly  disposition.  A 
bull  is  ugly  by  the  way  he  is  handled  rather  than  by  his 
breeding.  What  we  want  is  strong,  impressive  blood.  A 
dull,  sluggish  spirit  and  action  we  consider  indicative  of  a 
lack  of  true  dairy  prepotency,  but  we  would  prefer  to  breed 
to  a  rather  sluggish-appearing  bull  with  first-class  rudimen- 
taries  than  to  a  stylish  one  with  badly  placed  rudimentaries. 

Rudivientary  Teats. — We  consider  that  a  well-balanced 
and  well-shaped  udder  in  the  cow  is  largely  due  to  the  way 
the  rudimentary  teats  are  placed  on  the  sire.  If  they  are 
crowded  close  together  the  result  is  likely  to  be  narrow, 
pointed  udders.  If  they  are  placed  well  apart,  of  good  size, 
and  well  forward  of  the  scrotum,  the  effect,  we  think,  will 
be  to  influence  largely  the  production  of  well-shaped  udders 
in  the  resulting  heifers  and  counteract  the  tendency  to  ill- 
shaped  udders  inheritable  from  dams  deficient  in  this  respect. 
We  believe  the  future  excellence  of  the  Guernsey  cow  will 
be  greatly  aided  by  close  attention  on  the  part  of  her  breeders 
to  this  point. 


298 


JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


Holstein-Friesian. — The  Holstein-Friesian  breed  is  a  native 
of  Holland.  The  breed  ranks  as  the  largest  of  the  dairy 
type.  Bulls  often  weigh  as  much  as  1800  to  2000  pounds, 
the  average  of  the  cows  being  about  1250  pounds.  The 
color  is  black  and  white.  There  is  a  great  variation  in  this 
respect,  some  animals  being  nearly  black  and  others  largely 
white.  There  is  a  tendency  to  breed  more  white  than 
formerly.  In  Holland  some  herds  are  characterized  by  a  red 
and  white  color,  although  this  is  not  characteristic  or  accep- 


FiG.  124 


-A  Holsteiu-Friesian  cow  showing  a  typical  side  u  ■ 
balanced  udder. 


table  in  American  herds.  The  quality  of  the  breed  is  fre- 
quently deficient,  as  indicated  in  a  thick  skin,  coarse  hair, 
and  rough  joints.  The  dairy  temperament  is  not  as  well 
developed  as  in  some  other  breeds.  There  is  a  decided 
tendency  to  beefiness  in  some  specimens.  The  body  of 
the  Holstein-Friesian  is  unusually  large,  giving  them  great 
feeding  and  milk-giving  capacity.  The  udders  are  large  and 
often  pendulous.  The  breed  is  characterized  by  some  un- 
usually large  producers.  Cases  are  on  record  where  more 
than  27,000  pounds  of  milk  has  been  produced  annually.  The 


BREED  CHARACTERISTICS  299 

quality  of  the  milk  is  not  as  rich  as  in  other  recognized  dairy 
breeds.  It  ranks  considerably  below  the  Jersey  and  the 
Guernsey  in  this  respect.  In  judging  Holsteins,  while  they 
should  be  compared  with  the  dairy  standard  it  will  fre- 
quently be  found  that  they  are  not  as  distinctly  developed 
in  this  direction  as  either  the  Guernsey  or  Jersey  breed.  The 
chief  faults  are  lack  in  dairy  temperament,  drooping  rumps, 
and  unsj'mmetrical,  pendulous  udders. 

Standard  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of  Points  for  Holstein- 

Friesian  Cattle. 

Bull. 

Counts. 
Head. — Showing  full  vigor;  elegant  in  contour  ......         2 

Forehead. — Broad  between  the  eyes;  dishing 2 

Face. — Of  medium  length;  clean  and  trim,  especially  under  the 

e3^es;  the  bridge  of  the  nose  straight 2 

jMuzzle. — Broad  with  strong  lips 1 

Ears. — Of  medium  size;  of  fine  texture;  the  hair  plentiful  and 

soft;  the  secretions  oily  and  abundant 1 

Eyes. — Large;  full;  mild;  bright 2 

Horns. — Short;  of  medium  size  at  base;  gradually  diminishing 
toward    tips;     oval;     inclining    forward;    moderately    ciu-ved 

inward;  of  fine  texture;  in  appearance  waxy 1 

Neck. — Long;  finely  crested  (if  the  animal  is  mature);  fine  and 
clean  at  juncture  with  the   head;    nearly  free  from  dewlap; 

strongly  and  smoothly  joined  to  shoulders 5 

Shoulders. — Of  medium  height;  of  medium  thickness,  and 
smoothly  rounded  at  tops;  broad  and  full  at  sides;  smooth  over 

front 4 

Chest. — Deep  and  low;  well  filled  and  smooth  in  the  brisket; 
broad  between  the  forearms;  full  in  the  foreflanks  (or  thi'ough 

at  the  heart) 7 

Crops.— Comparatively  fuU;  nearly  level  with  the  shoulders  .  .  4 
Chine. — Strong ;  straight,  broadly  developed,  with  open  vertebrae  .  6 
Barrel. — Long;  well  rounded;  with  large  abdomen;  strongly  and 

trimly  held  up 7 

Loins  and  Hips. — Broad;  level  or  nearly    level    between    hook- 
bones;  level  and  strong  laterally;  spreading  out  from  the  chine 
broadly  and  nearly  level;  the  hook-bones  fairly  prominent  .      .         7 
Rump. — Long;  broad;  high;  nearly  level  laterally;  comparatively 
full  above  the  thurl;  carried  out  straight  to  dropping  of  tail      .         7 

Thurl. — High;  broad 4 

Quarters. — Deep;  broad;  straight  behind;  wide  and  full  at  sides 

open  in  the  twist 5 

Flanks. — Deep;  full 2 

Legs. — Comparatively  short;  clean  and  nearly  straight;  wide 
apart;  firroly  and  squarely  set  under  the  body;  arms  wide, 
strong  and  tapering;  feet  of  medium  size,  round,  solid  and  deep         5 

Carried  forward 74 


300  JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 

Counts. 
Brought  forward 74 

Tail. — Large  at  base,  the  setting  well  back;  tapering  finely  to 
switch;  the  end  of  bone  reaching  to  hocks  or  below;  the  switch 
full '-^ 

Hair  and  Handling. — Hair  healthful  in  appearance;  fine,  soft 
and  furry;  skin  of  medium  thickness  and  loose;  mellow  under 
the  hand;  the  secretions  oily,  abundant,  and  of  a  rich  brown  or 
yellow  color 10 

Mammary  Veins. — Large;  full;  entering  large  orifices;  double 
extension;  with  special  development,  such  as  forks,  branches, 
connections,  etc 10 

Rudimentary  Teats. — Large;  well  placed 2 

Escutcheon. — Largest;  finest •      •         2 

General  Vigor. — For  deficiency  discredit  from  the  total  received 
not  to  exceed  eight  points. 

General  Symmetry  and  Fineness.- — For  deficiency  discredit 
from  the  total  received  not  to  exceed  eight  points. 

General  Style  and  Bearing. — For  deficiency  discredit  from 
the  total  received  not  to  exceed  eight  points. 

Credits  for  Offspring. — A  bull  shall  be  credited  one  point  in 
excess  of  what  he  is  otherwise  entitled  to,  for  each  and  every 
animal  of  which  he  is  sire  actually  entered  in  the  Advanced 
Register,  not  to  exceed  ten  in  number. 

In  scaling  for  the  Advanced  Register,  defects  caused  solely  by 
age,  or  by  accident,  or  by  disease  not  hereditary,  shall  not  be 
considered.  But  in  scaling  for  the  show  ring,  such  defects  shall 
be  considered  and  duly  discredited. 

A  bull  that  in  the  judgment  of  the  Inspector  will  not  reach, 
at  full  age  and  in  good  flesh,  1800  pounds,  five  weight,  shall  be 
disquahfied  for  entry  in  the  Advanced  Register. 

No  bull  shall  be  received  to  the  Advanced  Register,  that  with 
all  credits  due  him,  will  not  scale,  in  the  judgment  of  the  in- 
spector, at  least  80  points.  (See  amendment  to  Rule  IV,  an 
exception  to  these  requirements). 

Perfection 100 

Cow. 

Head. — Decidedly  feminine  in  appearance;  fine  in  contour      .      .         2 

Forehead. — Broad  between  the  eyes;  dishing 2 

Face. — Of  medium  length;  clean  and  trim  especially  under  the 

eyes,  showing  facial  veins;  the  bridge  of  the  nose  straight    .      .         2 

Muzzle. — -Broad  with  strong  hps 1 

Ears. — Of  medium  size;  of  fine  texture;  the  hair  plentiful  and  soft; 

the  secretions  oily  and  abundant 1 

Eyes. — Large;  full;  mild;  bright 2 

Horns. — Small;  tapering  finely  toward  the  tips;  set  rnoderately 

narrow  at  base;  oval;  inchning  forward;  well  bent  inward;  of 

fine  texture;  in  appearance  waxy 1 

NECK.^Long;  fine  and  clean  at  juncture  with  the  head;  free  from 

dewlap;  evenly  and  smoothly  joined  to  shoulders      ....         4 

Carried  forward 15 


BREED  CHARACTERISTICS  301 

Counts. 
Brought  forward 15 

Shoulders. — Slight!}'  lower  than  the  hips;  fine  and  even  over 
tops;  moderately  broad  and  full  at  sides 3 

Chest. — Of  moderate  depth  and  lowness;  smooth  and  moderately' 
full  in  the  brisket,  full  in  the  forefianks  (or  through  the  heart)  .         6 

Crops. — Moderately  full 2 

Chine. — Straight;  strong;  broadly  developed,  with  open  vertebrae         6 

Barrel. — Long;  of  wedge  shape;  well  rounded;  with  a  large 
abdomen,  trimly  held  up  (in  judging  the  last  item  age  must  be 
considered) 7 

Loin  axd  Hips. — Broad;  level  or  nearly  level  between  the  hook- 
bones;  level  and  strong  laterallj^;  spreading  from  chine  broadly 
and  nearly  level;  hook-bones  fairh'  prominent 6 

Rump. — Long;  high;  broad  with  roomj-  pelvis;  nearly  level  later- 
all}-;  comparatively  full  above  the  thurl;  carried  out  straight 
to  dropping  of  tail 6 

Thurl. — High;  broad 3 

Quarters. — Deep:  straight  behind;  twist  filled  with  development 
of  udder:  wide  and  moderately  full  at  the  sides 4 

Flaxks. — Deep;  comparatively  full 2 

Legs. — Comparatively  short;  clean  and  nearly  straight;  wide 
apart;  firmly  and  squarely  set  under  the  body;  feet  of  medium 
size,  round,  solid  and  deep 4 

Tail. — Large  at  the  base;  the  setting  well  back;  tapering  finely 
to  switch;  the  end  of  the  bone  reaching  to  hocks  or  below;  the 
switch  full r 2 

Hair  axd  Handling. — Hair  healthful  in  appearance;  fine,  soft 
and  furry;  the  skin  of  medium  thickness  and  loose;  mellow  under 
the  hand:  the  secretions  oily,  abundant  and  of  a  rich  brown  or 
yellow  color 8 

I\L\MMARY  Veins. — Very  large,  very  crooked  i^age  must  be  taken 
into  consideration  in  judging  of  size  and  crookedness) ;  entering 
very  large  or  numerous  orifices;  double  extension;  with  special 
developments,  such  as  branches,  connections,  etc 10 

L'dder. — ^'ery  capacious;  very  flexible;  quarters  even;  nearly 
filling  the  space  in  the  rear  below  the  twist,  extending  well 
forward  in  the  front;  broad  and  well  held  up 12 

Teats. — Well  formed;  wide  apart,  plump  and  of  convenient  size        2 

Escutcheon. — Largest;  finest 2 

General  Vigor. — For  deficiency  discredit  from  the  total  re- 
ceived not  to  exceed  eight  points. 

General  Symmetry  and  Fineness. — For  deficiency  discredit 
from  the  total  received  not  to  exceed  eight  points. 

Gener.\l  Style  and  Bearing.^ — For  deficiency  discredit  from  the 
total  received  not  to  exceed  eight  points. 

Credits  for  Excess  of  Requirement  in  Production. — A  cow 
shall  be  credited  one  point  in  excess  of  what  she  is  otherwise 
entitled  to,  for  each  and  every  S  per  cent,  that  her  milk  or 
butter  record  exceeds  the  minimum  requirement. 

In  scaling  for  the  Advanced  Register,  defects  caused  solely  by 
age,  or  by  accident,  or  by  disease  not  hereditary,  shall  not  be 
considered.  But  in  scaling  for  the  show  ring,  such  defects 
shall  be  considered  and  duly  discredited. 

Perfection 100 


302 


JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


A  cow  that  in  the  judgment  of  the  inspector  will  not  reach 
at  full  age,  in  milking  condition  and  ordinary  flesh,  1000 
pounds  live  weight,  shall  be  disqualified  for  entry  in  the 
Advanced  Register. 

No  cow  shall  be  received  to  the  Advanced  Register  that, 
with  all  credits  due  her,  will  not  scale,  in  the  judgment  of 
the  inspector,  at  least  75  points.  (See  in  last  paragraph 
of  Rule  VI  an  exception  to  these  requirements.) 


Fig.  125. — An  Ayrshire  cow  of  modern  type. 


Ayrshire. — The  Ayrshire  breed  originated  in  the  shire  of 
Ayre,  Scotland.  It  is  characterized  by  good  dairy  form, 
especially  in  the  udder  development.  The  weight  of  the 
cows  ranges  from  900  to  1000  pounds,  the  males  ranging 
considerably  heavier.  The  color  of  the  modern  Ayrshire 
is  largely  white,  the  head  and  neck  or  other  body  parts 
being  marked  with  red  or  dark  brown  spots.  The  horns  are 
very  characteristic  of  the  breed  because  of  their  peculiar 
upright  growth.  The  Ayrshire  is  strong  and  vigorous  in 
constitution,  the  barrel  capacious,  and  the  temperament  fair 


BREED  CHARACTERISTICS  303 

in  its  development  as  indicating  dairy  characteristics.  The 
quality  of  the  Ayrshire  is  medium.  The  udder  is  one  of  the 
distinctive  qualifications  of  the  breed.  It  is  attached  high, 
extends  well  forward,  and  is  unusually  well  carried.  Pendant 
udders  are  not  common  in  the  breed.  The  quality  of  the 
milk  is  fair,  ranking  somewhat  higher  than  that  from  the 
Holstein-Friesian.  The  breed  is  adapted  to  sparse  pasture 
conditions.  It  is  hardy,  and  does  well  under  conditions 
where  other  less  vigorous  breeds  would  fail.  The  general 
conformation  is  long,  low,  and  deep  in  the  body.  Lack  of 
size  and  pronounced  dairy  temperament  are  the  chief  criti- 
cisms of  the  breed,  although  these  are  not  serious. 

Standard  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of  Points  for  Ayrshire 

Cattle. 

Bull. 
Head — 16  Points.  Points. 

Forehead:  broad  and  clearly  defined 2 

Horn:  strong  at  base,  set  wide  apart,  inclining  upward  1 

Face:  of  medium  length,  clean  cut,  showing  facial  veins  .      .         2 

Muzzle:  broad  and  strong  without  coarseness 1 

Nostrils:  large  and  open 2 

Jaws:  wide  at  the  base  and  strong 1 

Eyes:  moderately  large,  full  and  bright 3 

Ears:  of  medium  size  and  fine,  carried  alert 1 

Expression:  full  of  vigor,  resolute  and  mascuhne    ....         3 
Neck — 10  Points. 

Of  medium  length,  somewhat  arched,  large  and  strong  in  the 
muscles  on  top,  inclined  to  flatness  on  sides,  enlarging 
symmetrically  toward  the  shoulders;  throat  clean  and  free 

from  loose  skin 10 

Forequarters — 15  Points. 

Shoulders:  strong,  smoothly  blending  into  body  with,  good 

distance  through  from  point  to  point  and  fine  on  top    .      .         3 
Chest:  low,  deep  and  full  between  back  and  forelegs   ...         8 
Brisket:  deep,  not  too  prominent  and  with  very  little  dewlap  .         2 
Legs  and  Feet:   legs  well  apart,  straight  and  short,  shanks 
fine  and  smooth,  joints  firm,  feet  of  medium  size,  round, 

solid  and  deep 2 

Body — 18  Points. 

Back:  short  and  straight,  chine  strongly  developed  and  open 

jointed 5 

Loin:  broad,  strong  and  level 4 

Ribs:  long,  broad,  strong,  well  sprung  and  wide  apart      .      .         4 
Abdomen:  large  and  deep,  trimly   held    up    with    muscular 

development 4 

Flank:  thin  and  arching 1 

Carried  forward 59 


304  JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 

Points. 

Brought  forward 59 

Hindquarters — 16  Points. 

Rump:  level,  long  from  hooks  to  pin-bones 5 

Hooks:  medium  distance  apart,  proportionately  narrower  than 
in  female,  not  rising  above  the  level  of  the  back      ...         2 

Pin-bones:  high,  wide  apart 2 

Thighs:  thin,  long  and  wide  apart 4 

Tail:  fine,  long,  and  set  on  level  with  back 1 

Legs  and  Feet:  legs  straight,  set  well  apart,  shanks  fine  and 
smooth,  feet  medium  size,  round,  solid  and  deep,  not  to 

cross  in  walking 2 

Scrotum— 3  Points. 

Well  developed  and  strongly  carried 3 

RuDiMENTARiES,  Veins — 4  Points. 

Teats  of  uniform  size  squarely  placed,  wide  apart  and  free 
from  scrotum;  veins  long,  large,  tortuous  with  extensions 
entering  large  orifices;  escutcheon  pronounced  and  cover- 
ing a  large  surface 4 

Color — 3  Points. 

Red  of  any  shade,  brown,  or  these  with  white;  mahogany  and 

white;  each  color  distinctly  defined 3 

Covering — 6  Points. 

Skin:  medium  thickness,  mellow  and  elastic 3 

Hair:  soft  and  fine 2 

Secretions:  oily,  of  rich  brown  or  yellow  color 1 

Style — 5  Points. 

Active,  vigorous,  showing  strong  masculine  character,  temper- 
ament inchned  to  nervousness  but  not  irritable  or  vicious         5 
Weight — 4  Points. 

At  maturity  not  less  than  1500  pounds 4 

Total 100 

Cow. 
Head — 10  Points. 

Forehead:  broad  and  clearly  defined 1 

Horns:  wide  set  on  and  inclining  upward 1 

Face:  of  medium  length,  slightly  dished;  clean  cut,  showing 

veins 2 

Muzzle:  broad  and  strong  without  coarseness,  nostrils  large  .         1 

Jaws:  wide  at  the  base  and  strong 1 

Eyes:  full  and  bright  with  placid  expression 3 

Ears:  of  medium  size  and  fine,  carried  alert 1 

Neck — 3  Points. 

Fine  throughout,  throat  clean,  neatly  joined  to  head  and 
shoulders,   of  good  length,   moderately   thin,   nearly  free 

from  loose  skin,  elegant  in  bearing 3 

FoREQUARTERS — 10  Points. 

Shoulders:  light,  good  distance  through  from  point  to  point 

but  sharp  at  withers,  smoothly  blending  into  body        .      .         2 
Chest:  low,  deep  and  full  between  back  and  forelegs    ...         6 

Brisket:  fight 1 

Legs  and  Feet:  legs  straight  and  short,  well  apart,  shanks  fine 
and  smooth,  joints  firm;  feet  medium  size,  round,  solid  and 
deep 1 

Carried  forward 23 


BREED  CHARACTERISTICS  305 

Points. 

Brought  forward 23 

Body— 13  Points. 

Back:  strong  and  straight,  chine  lean,  sharp  and  open- 
jointed    4 

Loin:  broad,  strong  and  level 2 

Ribs:  long,  broad,  wide  apart  and  well  sprung       ....         3 
Abdomen:  capacious,  deep,  firmly  held  up  mth  strong  mus- 
cular development 3 

Flank:  thin  and  arching 1 

Hindquarters — 11  Points. 

Rump:  wide,  level,  long  from  hooks  to  pin-bones,  a  reason- 
able pelvic  arch  allowed 3 

Hooks:   wide   apart   and    not    projecting    above    back   nor 

unduly  overlaid  with  fat 2 

Pin-bones:  high,  wide  apart 1 

Thighs:  thin,  long  and  wide  apart 2 

Tail:  fine,  long  and  set  on  level  with  back 1 

Legs   and   Feet:    legs   strong,  short,  straight,  when   viewed 
from  behind  and  set  well  apart;  shanks  fine  and  smooth, 
joints  firm,  feet  medium  size,  round,  solid,  and  deep     .      .         2 
Udder— 22  Points. 

Long,  wide,  deep  but  not  pendulous  or  fleshy;  firmly 
attached  to  the  body,  extending  well  up  behind  and  far  for- 
ward; quarters  even;  sole  nearly  level  and  not  indented 
between  teats;   udder  veins  well  developed  and  plainly 

visible 22 

Teats — 8  Points. 

Evenly  placed,  distance  apart  from  side  to  side  equal  to 
half  the  breadth  of  udder,  from  back  to  front  equal  to  one- 
third  the  length;  length  2j  to  3§  inches,  thickness  in 
keeping  with  length,  hanging  perpendicular  and  not  taper- 
ing                8 

Mammary  Veins — 5  Points. 

Large,  long,  tortuous,  branching  and  entering  large  orifices         5 
Escutcheon — 2  Points. 

Distinctly  defined,  spreading  over  thighs  and  extending  well 

upward 2 

Color — 2  Points. 

Red  of  any  shade,  brown,  or  these  with  white;  mahogany  and 
white,  or  white;  each  color  distinctly  defined.     (Brindle 

markings  allowed  but  not  desirable.) 2 

Co\^RiNG — 6  Points. 

Skin:  medium  thickness,  mellow  and  elastic 3 

Hair:  soft  and  fine 2 

Secretions:  oily,  of  rich  brown  or  yellow  color 1 

Style — 4  Points. 

Alert,"   vigorous,    showing    strong    character;    temperament 

inchned  to  nervousness  but  still  docile 4 

Weight — i  Points. 

At  maturity  not  less  than  one  thousand  pounds     ....         4 

Total 100 

20 


306 


JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


Brown  Swiss. — The  Brown  Swiss  breed  until  recently  has 
been  bred  from  a  dual  purpose  standpoint.  The  Registry 
Association  and  advocates  of  the  breed  are  now  paying  more 
attention  to  dairy  qualities.  The  breed  is  horned,  solid 
brown  in  color,  excepting  the  udder  wdiich  is  usually  of  a 
lighter  color.  There  is  usually  a  light  streak  of  hair  on  the 
poll,  inside  the  ears  and   along  the  back.     The  muzzle  is 


Fig.  126. — A  Brown  Swiss  cow,  shomng  dairy  capacity  in  the  general  form 
and  development. 


mealy  colored  and  the  nose,  tongue,  and  switch  are  black. 
The  breed  possesses  an  exceptionally  strong,  vigorous  con- 
stitution. The  weight  ranges  from  1100  to  1300  pounds  in 
standard  females.  However,  the  average  weight  is  some- 
what less.  The  general  form  is  inclined  to  be  rather  coarse 
and  lacking  in  dairy  attainment  and  refinement.  The  neck 
is  somewhat  large  and  heavy,  and  the  shoulders  and  thighs 
are  inclined  to  be  beefy.     The  body  is  capacious,  and  the 


BREED  CHARACTERISTICS  307 

udder  usually  very  well  proportioned.  The  mammary  veins 
and  wells  are  medium  in  size.  The  quality  is  only  average, 
the  skin  being  too  thick,  the  hair  inclined  to  be  coarse,  and 
the  joints  large.  In  dairy  temperament  the  breed  ranks 
fair.  It  is  adapted  to  rough,  mountainous  conditions,  not 
having  become  widelv  disseminated  in  this  countrv. 


St.\nd.\rd  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of  Points  for  Brown 
Swiss  Cows  and  Heifers. 

Points. 

Head. — jNIedium  size  and  rather  long 2 

Face. — Dished,  narrow  between  horns  and  wide  between  eyes     .  2 
Ears. — Large,  fringed  inside  with  hght  colored  hair;  skin  inside 

of  ear  a  deep  orange  color 2 

Nose. — Black,  large  and  square  with  mouth  surrounded  by  mealy 

colored  band,  tongue  black 2 

Eyes. — Moderately  large,  full  and  bright 2 

Horns. — Short,  regularly  set  with  black  tips 2 

Xeck. — Straight,  throat  clean,  neatly  joined  to  head,  shoulders 

of  good  length  and  moderately  thin  at  the  shoulder        ...  4 

Chest. — Low,  deep  and  full  between  and  back  of  forelegs       .      .  6 

Back. — Level  to  setting  on  of  tail  and  broad  across  the  loin  .      .  6 
Ribs. — Long  and  broad,  wide  apart  and  well  sprung  with  thin, 

arching  flanks 3 

Abdomen. — Large  and  deep 5 

Hips. — Wide  apart,  rump  long  and  broad 4 

Thighs. — Wide  with  heavy  quarters 4 

Legs. — Short  and  straight  with  good  hoofs 2 

Tail. — Slender  with  good  switch 2 

Hide. — Of  medium  thickness,  mellow  and  elastic 3 

Color. — Shades  from  dark  to  light  bro^m,  at  some  seasons  of 
the  year  graj';  white  splashes  near  udder  not  objectionable, 
light  stripe  along  back.  White  splashes  on  body  or  sides 
objectionable.     Hair  between  horns  usually  lighter  shade  than 

body 4 

Fore  tdder. — Wide,  deep  but  not  pendulous  or  fleshy,  extending 

far  forward  on  the  abdomen 12 

Hind  udder. — Wide,  deep,  but  not  pendulous  or  fleshy,  extending 

well  up  behind 12 

Teats. — Rather  large,  set  well  apart  and  hanging  straight  down  8 
Milk  Veins. — Large,  long,  tortuous,  elastic  and  entering  good 

wells 6 

Escutcheon.— Well  defined,  spreading  over  thighs  and  extend- 
ing well  upward          2 

Disposition. — Quiet 2 

Size. — -Mature  cows  should  weigh  noi  less  than  1100  pounds       .  3 

Total 100 


308  JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


Bull  Same  as  in  Cows  and  Heifers  Except  for  the  Following: 

Points. 

Expression. — Full  of  vigor,  resolution,  and  masculinity  ...         3 
Neck. — Of  medium  length,  somewhat  arched,  large  and  strong  in 
muscles  on  top,  sloping  symmetrically  to  shoulders.    Shoulders 

large  and  strong,  smoothly  blending  into  body 10 

Scrotum. — Well  developed  and  strongly  carried 3 

Rudimentary  Teats. — Squarely  placed,  wide  apart,  and  free  from 

the  scrotum 6 

Mature  Bulls. — Should  weigh  not  less  than  1600  pounds    .      .         3 
Dark,  smoky  skins  very  objectionable. 


French-Canadian. — The  French-Canadian  breed  it  is  sup- 
posed originally  came  from  the  same  stock  which  forms  the 
nucleus  of  the  Jersey  and  Guernsey  breeds.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  breed,  however,  was  in  the  province  of  Quebec, 
Canada.  The  size  ranks  smaller  than  the  Jersey.  The  breed 
is  not  as  highly  developed  as  the  Jersey,  and  is  not  widely 
distributed.  It  is  adapted  chiefly  to  colder  and  more  rig- 
orous climates  than  the  Jersey.  Compared  with  this  breed, 
it  is  stronger  in  constitution  and  less  subject  to  disease.  The 
color  of  the  French-Canadian  is  black  or  brown  with  a  yellow- 
ish fawn  stripe  along  the  back  and  around  the  muzzle.  Black 
is  preferred  in  the  males.  The  conformation  of  the  breed  is 
very  similar  to  that  of  the  Jersey.  The  horns  are  medium 
in  size  and  usually  curve  outward  and  then  inward.  One 
of  the  chief  points  in  favor  of  the  breed  is  its  hardiness. 
It  ranks  high  in  grazing  and  early  maturing  qualities.  The 
quality  of  the  milk  is  somewhat  lower  than  the  Jersey  or 
Guernsey,  the  average  butter-fat  test  for  the  breed  being 
about  4  per  cent.  The  quality  of  the  breed  is  especially 
characteristic,  as  shown  in  the  mellow  hide  and  orange  color 
in  the  ears  and  around  the  udder.  The  breed  is  important 
more  from  an  authoritative  standpoint,  being  disseminated 
principally  in  Quebec. 

Dutch  Belted. — The  Dutch  Belted  breed  is  a  native  of 
Holland.  It  is  characterized  b}^  a  band  or  belt  of  white  which 
extends  entirely  around  the  body,  usually  from  just  back  of 
the  shoulders  or  thereabouts  to  the  region  of  the  hook  points. 
The  remaining  portions  of  the  body  are  almost  invariably 


BREED  CHARACTERISTICS  309 

black.  The  size  of  the  breed  ranks  smaller  than  the  Holstein, 
comparing  more  favorably  with  the  Ayrshire  in  this  respect. 
The  breed  is  not  especially  significant  from  the  dairy  stand- 
point, although  there  are  several  rather  prominent  herds  in  the 
country.  The  breed  is  deficient  in  dairy  development,  not 
showing  the  characteristic  dairy  temperament  or  udder 
development.     The  udder  is  usually  small,  attached  low,  and 


Fig.  127.— a  Dutch  Belted  cow. 

the  teats  placed  close  together.  The  breed  does  not  compare 
favorably  with  the  Holstein-Friesian,  as  its  origin  would  pos- 
sibly indicate.  It  does  not  possess  a  large  number  of  high 
producers.  It  is  especially  adapted  to  favorable  pasture 
and  feed  conditions.  The  breeding  qualities  are  unusually 
marked,  owing  to  the  almost  invariable  transmission  of  the 
belted  quality  to  grade  animals.  The  breed  is  not  widely 
disseminated.  It  is  distinctive  principally  on  account  of  the 
peculiar  color  markings. 


310  JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 

Standard  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of  Points  fob  Dutch 
Belted  Cattle. 

Cow. 

Points. 

Body. — Color  black,   with   a   clearly   defined   continuous   white 
belt.     The  belt  to  be  of  medium  width,  beginning  behind  the 

shoulder  and  extending  nearly  to  the  hips 8 

Head. — Comparatively    long    and    somewhat    dishing:     Broad 

between  the  eyes.  Poll  prominent;  muzzle  fine;  dark  tongue  6 
Eyes. — Black,  full  and  mild.     Horns  long  compared  with  their 

diameter 4 

Neck. — Fine    and    moderately   thin   and   should   harmonize   in 

symmetry  with  the  head  and  shoulders 6 

Shoulders. — Fine  at  the  top,  becoming  deep  and  broad  as  they 

extend  backward  and  downward,  with  a  low  chest  ....  4 
Barrel. — Large  and   deep  with  well-developed   abdomen;   ribs 

well  rounded  and  free  from  fat 10 

Hips. — Broad  and  chine  level  with  full  loin 10 

Rump. — High,  long  and  broad       ....". 6 

Hindquarters. — Long  and  deep,    rear    line    incurving.     Tail 

long,  slim,  tapering  to  a  full  switch 8 

Legs. — Short,  clean,  standing  well  apart 3 

Udder. — Large,  well-developed  front  and  rear.     Teats   of   con- 
venient size  and  wide  apart;  mammary  veins  large,  long  and 

crooked,  entering  large  orifices 20 

Escutcheon 2 

Hair. — Fine  and  soft;  skin  of  moderate  thickness,  of  a  rich  dark 

or  yellow  color 3 

Disposition. — Quiet  and  free  from  excessive  fat 4 

General  Condition  and  apparent  constitution 6 

Perfection 100 

Dutch  Belted  Bull. 

The  scale  of  points  for  males  shall  be  the  same  as  those  given  for 
females,  except  that  No.  11  should  be  omitted  and  the  bull  credited  10 
points  for  size  and  wide  spread,  placing  of  rudimentary  teats,  and  10 
additional  points  for  perfection  of  belt. 

Kerry. — The  native  home  of  the  Kerry  is  in  the  Kerry 
Mountains  in  western  Ireland.  There  are  two  types  of  the 
breed,  known  as  the  Kerry  and  the  smaller  type  known  as  the 
Dexter  Kerry.  The  Kerry  is  recognized  as  a  dairy  animal. 
The  weight  ranges  from  500  to  600  pounds  in  the  females 
and  from  700  to  1000  pounds  in  the  males.  The  color  is 
usually  black,  although  red  sometimes  occurs.  White  is 
objectionable.  The  breed  is  horned  and  is  moderately  well 
proportioned  in  its  dairy  attainments.  The  breed  is  not 
important    in    this    country,  although    significant    from    a 


BREED  CHARACTERISTICS 


311 


historic  standpoint.  As  a  milk  producer,  the  Kerry  is 
very  good.  While  the  quantity  produced  is  not  large  it  is 
rather  rich  in  butter-fat.  The  breed  is  hardy,  enduring 
unusual  privation.  It  has  been  developed  under  particularly 
adverse  feed  conditions.  It  is  known  in  Ireland  as  the  poor 
man's  cow.  In  quality  and  early  maturity  the  breed  ranks 
as  average  compared  with  other  more  prominent  breeds. 
Very  few  specimens  have  been  introduced  into  this  country. 


Kerry  Cattle — Scale  of  Points. 

Bull.  Points. 

General  formation  and  character 25 

Head,  horns,  and  hair 25 

Quality  and  touch 20 

Color 30 

Total 100 

Cow. 

General  formation  and  character,  head,  horns,  and  hair     ...  15 

Body,  tophne,  underline,  ribs,  setting  of  tail,  and  shortness  of  leg  25 

Udder,  size,  shape,  situation  of  teats,  milk  veins  and  escutcheon  40 

Quality  and  touch 10 

Color 10 

Total 100 


CLASS  CHARACTERISTICS  313 

Class  Characteristics. — The  development  of  the  dairy 
animal  may  be  divided  into  three  rather  distinct  stages  or 
periods  which  include  the  mature  form  in  the  aged  dairy 
cow,  heifer  development,  and  calves. 

Mature  Form. — The  mature  dairy  animal  can  be  judged 
or  qualifications  depicted  from  the  dairy  standpoint  reason- 
ably accurately.  The  chief  difficulty  in  determining  the 
value  of  such  animals  is  during  their  non-productive  period 
or  after  the  cessation  of  lactation.  This  brings  into  use 
reasoning  power  based  on  the  possible  value  of  the  dairy 
animal  as  determined  by  quality,  conformation,  and  dairy 
temperament.  The  udder  development  is  usually  a  good 
indication  of  the  value  of  an  animal,  although  it  may  be 
misleading. 

In  judging  mature  animals,  particular  stress  should  be 
placed  on  present  dairy  qualifications  and  the  records  in 
the  herd  if  they  are  available.  When  an  animal  is  selected 
during  the  lactation  period  allowance  should  be  made  for  the 
duration  or  brevity  of  time  which  the  animal  has  been 
milked.  Unusual  development  at  the  beginning  of  the 
lactation  period  and  slack  development  at  the  end  of  the 
period  may  be  misleading.  However,  a  close  estimate  can 
be  made  by  balancing  the  udder  development  with  the 
other  dairy  characteristics  possessed.  In  selecting  after 
the  close  of  the  lactation  period,  the  size  and  shape  of  the 
udder,  the  character  of  the  mammary  veins,  and  the  size  of 
the  wells  should  all  be  noticed  closely.  Proper  correlation 
of  all  these  characteristics  and  other  evidences  of  dairy 
form  will  usually  furnish  a  close  estimate  of  the  value  of  an 
animal. 

Heifer  Development. — In  selecting  heifers  close  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  outcome  of  such  animals.  Present 
dairy  form  or  other  attributes  are  valuable,  but  the  possi- 
bilities must  be  taken  into  consideration.  Stress  should  be 
placed  on  the  weight  for  age,  quality,  constitution,  dairy 
temperament,  and  indications  of  mammary  development. 
Short,  shallow-bodied  animals,  thus  lacking  in  capacity,  and 
having  slack  development  otherwise  in  the  constitution  and 
mammary  system  are  very  objectionable. 


314 


JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


Dairy  Calves. — Dairy  calves  should  be  judged  in  the  same 
manner  as  discussed  under  the  general  topic  of  Selecting 
Live  Stock.  The  individuality  should  be  considered  along 
with  the  probable  outcome  in  dairy  form  and  capacity. 
Evidences  of  growth,  thriftiness,  and  capacity,  both  in  the 
digestive  and  mammary  systems,  should  be  apparent.  The 
small  calf  with  a  shallow  body  and  flat  ribs  never  develops 
into  a  large  productive  individual.  The  head  should  be 
broad,    clearly   outlined,    the   muzzle   strong,    the   neck   of 


Tig.   130. — Au   Ayrshire   bull   exeiiiplifyiug   breed    type,    quality,  and  con- 
stitutional development. 

medium  length,  the  body  long,  broad,  and  deep,  these  all 
being  suggestive  of  rapid  growth  and  capacity.  Quality 
should  be  exhibited  in  the  skin,  hair,  and  bone,  the  latter 
showing  evidences  of  producing  an  animal  with  a  large  frame 
which  is  directly  associated  with  dairy  capacity. 

Breeding  Requisites. — The  requisites  of  breeding  cattle 
have  been  fully  considered  under  the  chapter  on  Beef  Cattle. 
There  are  certain  factors,  however,  in  connection  with  dairy 
animals,  which  should  have  special  consideration.  Like 
beef  animals,  dairy  cattle  should  show  evidences  of  mascu- 


CLASS  CHARACTERISTICS  315 

Unity  and  femininity  in  the  male  and  female  respectively. 
They  should  also  exhibit  strong  constitutional  development, 
good  quality,  and  capacity.  In  the  dairy  animal,  however, 
special  emphasis  should  be  placed  on  dairy  form  and  capacity, 
this  being  indicated  in  the  long,  deep,  spacious  barrel.  Cor- 
related with  this,  dairy  temperament  should  be  manifested 
in  large,  bright,  keen,  expressive  eyes;  clean,  facial  outlines; 
and  a  lean,  spare,  or  open  conformation.  The  development 
of  the  rudimentaries  should  be  emphasized  in  males. 

In  addition  to  these  qualifications,  the  breeding  female 
should  possess  striking  evidences  of  strong  maternal  functions 
or  reproductive  capacity.  This,  like  the  general  dairy  form 
and  capacity,  is  exhibited  in  the  prominent  hook  points, 
lengthy  hindquarters,  broadly  placed  pin-bones  or  thurls,  a 
deep  body,  and  striking  mammary  development.  Coupled 
with  the  individual  examination  of  the  breeding  animal, 
the  ancestral  records  should  be  closely  examined  as  well  as 
the  offspring  if  the  animal  has  attained  a  sufficient  age  to 
have  animals  in  the  active  stage  of  production.  The  dairy 
animal  which  has  reached  this  stage  is  unusually  strongly 
reinforced  with  evidences  of  reproductive  capacity.  Not 
only  may  the  individual  be  studied  from  the  standpoint  of 
present  attainment,  but  the  breeding  and  productive  records 
of  the  ancestors  and  in  certain  instances  that  of  the  progeny. 
Summing  up  the  discussion,  the  requisites  in  the  breeding 
animal  include  evidences  of  deep  dairy  development  cor- 
related with  constitution,  quality,  nervous  temperament, 
and  productive  capacity. 


M  ^ 


CHAPTER   XII. 
JUDGING  SWINE. 

Structure. — The  structural  development  of  swine  is  in  a 
general  way  like  that  of  cattle  and  sheep.  The  framework, 
especially  in  the  head  and  forequarter,  fixes  the  form  of 
these  parts  to  a  large  extent.  The  neck  and  hindquarters 
are  largely  constructed  of  muscular  tissue.  The  shoulders, 
however,  especially  in  their  filling  over  the  sides,  are  com- 
posed of  muscular  tissue.  It  is  quite  frequent  in  judging 
to  find  that  the  shoulders  protrude  on  top,  thus  giving  an 
open,  undesirable  condition.  The  back  of  the  hog,  especially 
along  the  spinous  processes,  is  rather  heavily  filled  with 
muscle  and  fat  tissue  in  the  finished  animal.  In  this  respect 
swine  are  different  from  sheep,  having  a  larger  proportion 
of  valuable  cuts  in  the  forequarters  and  body  proper.  From 
the  market  standpoint  these  regions  are  more  important, 
in  judging,  than  in  sheep. 

In  the  region  of  the  loin  and  coupling  there  is  a  large 
amount  of  muscular  tissue.  Animals  should  be  thickly 
covered  in  this  region  and  the  flanks  should  be  low  and  full 
and  the  sides  smooth  and  even.  Like  cattle  and  sheep, 
the  form  and  development  of  the  hindquarters  is  largely 
determined  by  muscle  and  fat  development.  The  ham  of 
the  hog  is  especially  valuable,  it  being  comparable  to  the 


EXPLANATION  OF  FIG.  131 

1— Mouth. 

9— Shoulder. 

18— Back. 

2 — Nostrils. 

10— Foreflank. 

19— Loin. 

3— Face. 

11 — Chest  floor. 

20 — Rump. 

4 — Eyes. 

12 — Legs. 

21 — Coupling. 

5 — Ears. 

13 — Dew  claws. 

22— Hindflank. 

6 — Jaws. 

14— Sheath. 

23— TaU. 

7— Jowl. 

15— Belly. 

24— Thighs. 

8— Neck. 

16 — Sides  or  ribs. 
17 — Heart  girth. 

25— Hocks. 

(317) 


318 


JUDGING  SWINE 


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PURPOSE  AND  METHOD  OF   USE  319 

leg  of  mutton  in  sheep.  In  swine  the  shape  of  the  head 
especially  is  very  largely  determined  by  the  bony  frame- 
work, next  the  shoulders,  then  the  body  and  least  of  all  the 
hindquarters.  The  importance  of  these  points  will  be  fully 
appreciated  in  scoring  or  comparing  a  class  of  animals  to 
determine  merit  from  the  market  standpoint.  Block  animals 
are  judged  according  to  the  amount,  location,  and  quality  of 
the  edible  products.  In  swine  there  is  a  more  uniform 
distribution  of  natural  flesh,  and  a  higher  dressing  percentage 
than  in  other  animals.  The  value  of  these  parts  therefore 
varies  less  than  in  cattle  or  sheep. 

Purpose  and  Method  of  Use. — The  carcass  of  swine  is  used 
either  in  the  fresh  form  or  in  a  cured  condition.  Practically 
all  of  the  cuts,  with  the  exception  of  the  edible  parts  of  the 
viscera,  may  be  prepared  in  a  permanent  condition  for  market 
uses.  Portions  from  the  head,  neck,  and  jowl  may  be 
minced  and  made  into  various  products  for  immediate  or 
future  consumption.  Backbones  and  ribs  are  usually  con- 
sumed in  a  fresh  condition  or  left  intact  with  the  sides. 
Otherwise  practically  all  of  the  cuts  from  the  hog  can  be 
prepared  intact  for  future  use.  Such  parts  include  the 
shoulders,  hams,  sides,  belly  meat,  and  leg  portions.  When 
prepared  in  this  condition  the  cuts  become  standard  market 
products. 

There  is  probably  no  other  animal  in  which  the  use  is  as 
wide  or  varied.  On  this  account  pork  products  are  very 
wide  in  adaptation  among  all  classes  of  people.  The  various 
cuts  obtained  from  the  hog  are  not  only  prominent  from 
the  packing-house  standpoint,  but  also  from  that  of  the 
farmer  and  the  city  patron.  No  other  farm  animal  can  be 
produced  as  profitably  under  such  a  range  of  conditions. 
The  greater  uniformity  in  the  value  of  the  various  cuts  and 
their  edibility,  in  both  the  fresh  and  cured  form,  gives  a 
double  significance  to  this  type  of  animal.  Knowledge  of 
the  form  of  the  hog  and  its  value  is  more  widely  disseminated 
than  that  of  any  other  block  animal.  It  constitutes  one  of 
the  main  sources  of  meat,  especially  among  the  average 
class  or  common  people.  In  judging  the  hog,  its  adapt- 
ability to  the  purposes  and  conditions  mentioned  should  be 
given  close  consideration. 


320  JUDGING  SWINE 

Age. — The  age  of  swine  may  be  determined  by  the  teeth, 
although  this  method  is  seldom  used.  The  general  appear- 
ance of  swine  can  usually  be  relied  upon  to  determine  the 
age  to  the  extent  which  it  is  needed  in  the  class  room,  show 
ring,  or  on  the  farm.  Aged  boar  and  sow  classes  include 
animals  two  years  old  or  over,  this  being  the  upper  age  limit 
in  show  yard  classifications.  The  stage  between  one  and 
two  years  and  under  one  year  can  usually  be  determined 
satisfactorily  by  the  general  appearance  of  the  animal. 
Furthermore,  swine  are  difficult  to  handle  to  determine  the 
age  by  dentition. 

Breed  Classification. — Swine  are  divided  into  two  distinct 
types  on  a  basis  of  their  adaptability  to  the  production  of 
pork  and  lard,  and  bacon  products.  Certain  breeds  of  hogs 
go  to  the  market  designated  as  lard  or  fat  hogs,  others  as 
bacon  hogs.  The  distinction  is  in  the  peculiar  characteristics 
of  the  two  types  which  adapt  one  to  the  production  of  an 
average-qualitied  edible  product  and  the  other  to  the  produc- 
tion of  a  high-class  bacon  product  characterized  b}^  alternate 
layers  of  fat  and  lean.  The  former  type  has  a  thick  pad  of  fat 
over  the  outside  of  the  body,  the  latter  type  having  a  thinner 
outside  covering  of  fat  with  a  characteristic  streaking  of  the 
fat  and  lean.    The  classification  is  made  by  breeds  as  follows: 

Fat  Type.  —  Berkshire  semifat,  Poland-China,  Duroc- 
Jersey,  Chester  White,  Hampshire,^  Cheshire,  Victoria,  Essex, 
Suffolk,  Middle  Yorkshire,  Small  Yorkshire,  and  Mule-foot. 

Bacon  Type. — Large  Yorkshire  and  Tamworth. 

Fat  Type. — The  qualifications  of  the  fat  type  of  hog, 
while  covering  many  of  those  which  characterize  the  bacon 
type,  have  a  peculiar  significance,  as  given  under  several 
important  headings,  which  include  age,  weight,  form,  quality, 
constitution,  capacity,  condition,  and  maturity.  Constitu- 
tion and  capacity  are  of  special  significance  in  breeding  swine. 
The  other  qualifications  are  especially  important  in  consider- 
ing the  hog  from  the  market  standpoint. 

General  View  of  the  Hog. — In  judging  the  hog  the  quality, 
confonnation,  style,  constitution  and  vigor  should  be  care- 
fully considered.     By  quality  is  meant  fineness  of  bone, 

1  Classed  also  as  a  bacon  animal,  depending  on  growth  and  development. 


AGE  AND  WEIGHT  321 

straight  glossy  hair,  fine,  clean  skin  and  a  clear-cut  contour, 
especially  about  the  head  and  ears.  The  bone  in  the  leg 
should  be  large,  straight  and  strong,  the  nostrils  open,  the 
eyes  prominent  and  bright,  and  the  chest,  broad,  deep  and 
full.  If  an  animal  is  being  selected  for  a  breeder,  breed 
character  and  constitution  are  of  special  importance.  One  of 
the  most  common  faults  of  the  hog,  especially  in  some  breeds 
is  to  narrow  abruptly  behind  the  shoulders  and  gradually 
become  narrower  toward  the  buttocks,  thus  giving  the 
animal,  not  only  an  ungainly  appearance,  but  a  very  undesir- 
able condition  from  the  market  standpoint.  Such  a  con- 
dition is  likely  to  be  magnified  in  the  male  because  of  the 
natural  tendency  to  be  heavy  through  the  shoulders  owing  to 
the  development  of  shields.  This  is  a  common  fault  in  sows, 
and  should  be  avoided. 

Age  and  Weight. — The  age  at  which  a  hog  reaches  market 
maturity  and  the  ultimate  weight  attained  at  this  period  is 
dependent  on  the  use  or  purpose  of  the  animal.  The  method 
of  feeding  also  bears  directly  on  the  problem.  A  hog  grown 
under  the  proper  condition  for  breeding  purposes  naturally 
develops  into  a  larger  and  stronger  animal  than  otherwise. 
Growth  takes  place  during  a  longer  period  than  when  the 
same  animal  is  fed  properly  for  market. "  A  clear  distinction 
should  therefore  be  made  in  judging  hogs  for  breeding  and 
market  purposes.  Special  stress  should  be  placed  on  the 
bone  development  in  a  breeding  animal  because  of  its  in- 
fluence on  the  duration  of  usefulness.  From  the  market 
standpoint  it  is  necessary  to  develop  only  sufficient  bone  and 
substance  to  carry  the  finished  market  weight. 

The  various  breeds  of  hogs  differ  greatly  in  their  weight 
for  age,  growing  period,  and  maturing  qualities.  The  Essex 
is  a  small  early  maturing  breed,  the  small  size  being  one 
of  the  principal  objections  to  the  breed.  The  Tamworth 
is  a  larger  and  later  maturing  breed,  the  latter  characteristic 
being  one  of  the  chief  objections  to  them.  Weight  for  age 
and  maturing  qualities  are  dependent  on  the  breed,  the 
individual,  and  the  method  of  feeding  and  management. 
Exceptional  weight  for  age  is  desirable,  providing  it  is  cor- 
related with  market  demands.  A  hog  weighing  200  to  225 
21 


322  JUDGING  SWINE 

pounds  is  always  in  ready  demand.  Small,  unfinished  hogs 
or  overgrown  specimens  with  excessive  waste  are  not  salable 
at  remunerative  prices.  It  is  therefore  better  to  have  less 
weight,  more  quality,  more  smoothness  and  symmetry  of 
form  than  to  have  extraordinary  weight  at  the  expense  of 
these  attributes. 

Conformation. — ;The  fat  type  of  hog  is  closely  analogous 
to  the  beef  animal  in  form  and  development.  Consideration 
should  be  given  to  the  length,  width,  depth,  symmetry  and 


Fig.   133. — A   Berkshire    barrow,   showing    the  desired  form,   quality,  and 
condition  in  the  fat  hog. 


compactness,  all  of  which  should  be  closely  correlated  in  the 
utility  animal.  The  form  of  the  breeder  is  not  greatly 
different  from  the  animal  used  for  feeding  purposes.  The 
principal  difference  is  in  the  larger,  broader,  capacious  frame 
of  the  breeding  specimen.  It  is  not  necessary,  therefore, 
to  differentiate  greatly  in  judging  these  two  types  of  ani- 
mals. The  body  of  both  should  be  long,  wide,  and  deep, 
the  back  slightly  arched,  the  shoulders  smooth,  the  sides 
smooth  and  even  and  the  loin  broad.  The  animal  should  have 
good  depth,  this  being  largely  determined  by  the  spring 


INDICATIONS  AND  VALUE  OF  QUALITY         323 

and  length  of  the  ribs.  The  shoulders,  sides  and  thighs 
should  be  smooth  and  free  from  creases  or  wrinkles.  A 
line  stretched  from  the  shoulder  to  the  thigh,  either  at  the 
rib  spring,  mid-body  or  at  the  underline  should  touch 
the  parts  mentioned.  The  width  should  be  sufficient 
to  furnish  the  maximum  amount  of  back  and  loin  cuts. 
Occasionally  animals  taper  from  the  top  line  toward  the 
underline.  This  is  not  only  objectionable  because  of  the 
decrease  for  productive  purposes,  but  it  renders  the  animal 
much  less  capacious  as  a  feeder  or  breeder  than  otherwise. 
The  nearer  the  hog  conforms  to  the  parallelogram  in  all  of 
its-  lines  and  measurements  the  nearer  it  approaches  the 
ideal.  The  legs  should  be  short,  straight  and  strong,  this 
being  especially  important  in  breeding  animals.  The  bone 
should  be  large,  dense  and  smooth,  the  pasterns  straight  and 
strong,  and  the  animal  should  stand  well  up  on  the  toes. 
A  break  in  the  pasterns  such  as  to  allow  the  animal  to 
walk  on  the  dew  claws  is  seriously  objectionable.  The 
general  appearance  of  the  hog  should  show  smoothness, 
symmetry,  style,  and  compactness.  Constitution  and  vigor 
should  be  clearly  evident  both  in  breeding  and  feeding 
animals. 

Indications  and  Value  of  Quality. — Quality  indicates  both 
texture  of  bone  and  carcass  and  the  dressing  percentage, 
these  determining  in  a  large  measure  the  ultimate  value  of 
the  product.  Quality  is  exhibited  largely  as  in  other  animals, 
although  there  are  special  characteristics  which  indicate  its 
presence  or  absence.  The  general  appearance  of  the  animal 
should  present  clean-cut  features  and  outline,  there  being  no 
tendency  to  grossness  or  flabbiness  in  any  part.  Lack  of 
clean-cut,  trim  lines  are  especially  indicative  of  inferior 
qualit^^  The  indications  are  seen  in  an  even  distribution 
of  a  fine,  silky  coat  of  hair.  Coarse  hair  and  frequently 
associated  swirls  are  the  most  noticeable  indications  of 
faulty  quality.  Coarse  quality  is  further  indicated  by  either 
long,  coarse,  straight  or  kinky  hair  or  the  reverse  condition 
in  which  it  curls  rather  tightly  to  the  body.  The  latter 
is  more  objectionable  as  it  detracts,  both  from  the  usefulness 
and  the  general  appearance  of  the  animal.     Swirls  are  very 


324 


JUDGING  SWINE 


BREEDING  AND  FEEDING  CAPACITY  325 

objectionable,  these  occurring  usually  about  the  head,  jowl, 
on  the  back,  or  over  the  rump. 

The  bone  of  the  animal  is  one  of  the  chief  indications  of 
the  quality  possessed.  A  large,  coarse,  open  bone  and  rough, 
undefined  joints  are  extremely  objectionable.  While  there 
should  be  sufficient  bone  to  sustain  the  weight  of  the 
animal  under  all  conditions,  quality  should  not  be  sacrificed 
to  obtain  it  in  an  extreme  degree.  A  bone  of  somewhat 
smaller  size  with  sufficient  quality  is  more  desirable  than  a 
large,  spongy  bone  devoid  of  quality.  This  latter  condition 
usually  signifies  open  or  loose  conformation,  w^hich  is  a  very 
objectionable  feature.  Large,  overgrown  ears,  a  heavy, 
flabby  jowl,  coarse,  open  shoulders,  rough,  undefined  joints, 
coarse  hair  and  a  large,  coarse  bone  are  the  chief  indications 
of  objectionable  quality.  Taken  as  a  whole,  there  should  be 
a  general  indication  of  smoothness,  compactness  and  refine- 
ment both  in  form  and  finish. 

Constitution  and  Vigor. — Constitution  is  especially  signifi- 
cant in  the  breeding  animal.  Because  of  the  comparatively 
short  period  w'hich  the  feeding  animal  is  maintained,  con- 
stitution is  not  of  equal  significance.  The  breeding  animal  is 
usually  maintained  for  a  long  period  of  years,  comparatively 
speaking,  and  to  sustain  the  burden  of  reproduction  and 
development  it  is  necessary  to  have  as  much  constitution  as 
consistent  with  the  size  and  type  of  the  animal.  Con- 
stitution is  indicated  by  a  broad,  strong  head,  large,  clear, 
bright  eyes,  a  large  muzzle,  large  nostrils  and  a  broad,  deep 
chest,  the  latter  indicating  capacity  for  heart  and  lung 
development.  The  general  appearance,  capacity,  move- 
ments and  demeanor  should  otherwise  indicate  a  strong  or 
weak-constitutioned  animal. 

Breeding  and  Feeding  Capacity. — Capacity  signifies  the 
ability  of  an  animal  to  economically  use  sufficient  feed  to 
attain  normal  and  economic  development  as  a  feeder  or  to 
properly  nourish  the  body  and  that  of  the  fetus  and  oft'- 
spring.  A  long,  broad,  deep,  capacious  body  is  important 
in  accomplishing  this  end.  Capacity  is  closely  coordinated 
with  constitution,  as  one  cannot  be  developed  to  a  maximum 
degree  without  the  other.    Capacity  indicates  roominess  of 


326  JUDGING  SWINE 

body.  This  term  should  not  be  confused  with  the  coarse- 
quahtied,  large,  open-framed  body  formerly  described. 
Capacity  and  compactness  should  be  consistently  developed 
in  the  animal.  A  cramped  chest  floor  and  a  narrow  floor 
line  in  the  body  with  insufficient  length  and  width  otherwise 
are  important  indications  of  insufficient  capacity. 

Meaning  and  Value  of  Condition. — The  term  condition  is 
used  to  signify  the  amount  of  marketable  finish  acquired 
by  an  animal.  A  hog  with  a  small  amount  of  fat  develop- 
ment is  said  to  be  in  low  condition,  thus  lacking  the  proper 
amount  of  fat  for  placing  it  in  the  most  acceptable  condition 
for  market  purposes.  A  high  condition  may  be  obtained 
economically  or  at  considerable  expense,  thus  largely  elimina- 
ting the  possible  profit  from  swine  husbandry.  When  an 
animal  is  excessively  fattened,  there  is  a  double  loss,  as 
superfluous  fat  is  extremely  objectionable  in  market  animals. 

The  important  evidences  of  condition  are  not  difficult  to 
recognize.  A  high-conditioned  hog  is  smoothly  covered  with 
fat,  thus  giving  an  even,  smooth,  symmetrical  appearance. 
The  jowl  should  be  full  and  firm,  the  shoulders  smooth,  well 
filled,  and  the  flanks  low.  If  the  flanks  are  well  filled  and 
carried  low  it  signifies  the  general  deposition  of  fat,  this 
being  one  of  the  last  places  where  fat  is  deposited  at  which 
time  normal  marketable  finish  is  completed.  A  full,  smooth, 
even,  symmetrical  appearance  is  indicative  of  finish  desired 
in  market  animals. 

Maturity. — Maturity  has  a  double  significance.  It  signifies 
the  attainment  of  definite  qualifications  for  two  fundamental 
purposes.  The  term  may  signify  either  breeding  or  market 
maturity.  An  animal  should  be  matured  for  breeding  pur- 
poses under  normal  growing  conditions  to  influence  the 
growth  of  a  strong,  dense  bone,  full  muscle  development,  and 
to  otherwise  induce  strong  constitutional  powers  primarily 
for  reproductive  purposes.  Market  maturity  in  a  hog  should 
be  attained  at  six  to  eight  months  of  age,  and  to  obtain  the 
desired  weight  for  age  different  feeding  methods  must  be 
followed.  Indications  of  forced  market  maturity  are  usually 
in  evidence  in  the  form,  vigor  displayed,  carriage  of  body 
and  bone  development,  as  indicated  in  the  legs  and  feet. 


PERCENTAGES  OF   YIELD  327 

Small  bone,  an  overabundance  of  fat,  weak,  low  pasterns, 
spreading  feet,  and  stilted  carriage  usually  indicate  forced 
maturity.  This  condition  necessarily  indicates  the  posses- 
sion of  objectionable  qualifications.  The  comparison  used 
should  not  be  taken  as  absolute  but  rather  as  indicative  of 
the  fundamental  meaning  of  the  two  conditions.  In  the  mar- 
ket animal  these  conditions  should  not  be  in  evidence  to  an 
extreme  degree.  The  principal  requirement  in  such  animals 
is  a  sufficiently  strong  bone  to  maintain  the  finished  weight 
providing  no  ill  effects  are  caused  otherwise.  As  a  breeder, 
however,  where  normal  size,  weight  for  age,  constitution, 
capacity,  and  reproduction  are  involved,  such  a  condition 
as  the  above  is  highly  objectionable.  Such  animals,  judged 
from  the  breeding  standpoint,  should  be  subject  to  extreme 
criticism,  and  likewise  in  market  animals,  where  utility  is 
depreciated. 

Dressing  Percentage. — A  well-bred  hog  with  pronounced 
individuality  should  normally  dress  from  75  to  85  per  cent, 
of  the  live  weight.  The  dressing  percentage  is  of  necessity 
dependent  upon  the  type,  age,  breeding,  individuality,  and 
condition.  An  inferior-bred  individual,  low  in  condition,  will 
dress  a  low  percentage,  as  the  conformity  of  the  animal  to  the 
accepted  standard  and  the  condition  attained  influence  the 
percentage  of  edible  product  obtained  from  the  live  animal. 
Young  pigs  or  unfinished  shoats  will  not  dress  as  high  as 
older  or  finished  animals  respectively.  The  accumulation  of 
fat  throughout  and  over  the  body  parts  is  largely  responsible 
for  the  ultimate  ratio  between  the  live  apd  dressed  weight. 

Exceptional  individuals  or  lots  of  hogs  have  been  known 
to  dress  as  high  as  87  to  88  per  cent.  This  is  an  extreme 
condition,  however,  and  should  not  be  taken  as  the  average. 
A  hog  in  average  condition  will  dress  about  75  per  cent.,  and 
one  in  high  condition  about  80  per  cent.  These  figures  are 
based  on  averages  obtained  under  normal  conditions  of  breed, 
individuality  and  condition. 

Percentages  of  Yield. — The  variety  of  cuts  into  which  a 
hog  can  be  divided  varies  considerably.  The  total  yield  of 
the  various  cuts  mentioned  in  the  following  table  will  vary 
with  the  market,  and  to  a  certain  extent  depending  upon  the 


328 


JUDGING  SWINE 


Fig.   135. — English  and  domestic  cuts  of  swine  carcass.     (Courtesy  of 
Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.) 


A- — Long  cut  ham. 

1 — Short  cut  ham. 

2 — Loin. 

3— Belly. 

4 — Picnic  butt. 

5 — Boston  butt. 

6 — Jowl. 

7— Hock. 

8— Fat  back. 


English  cuts. 


B — Long  side  or  middle. 


Domestic  Cuts. 


9 — Clear  plate. 
2,  8— Back. 
2,  3,  8— Side. 

4,  7 — Picnic  shoulder. 

5,  9 — Shoulder  butt. 
8,  9 — Long  fat  back. 

4,  5,  7,  9 — Rough  shoulder. 


DETAILS  OF  FORM  329 

size  of  the  hog  and  the  season  of  the  year.  These  variations 
will  not  be,  on  the  average,  more  than  2  per  cent,  of  the  total 
yield.  The  figures  given  are  based  on  hogs  weighing  from 
240  to  275  pounds. 

A  hog  cut  in  the  following  manner  will  yield  the  following 
percentages  based  on  live  weight. 

Cuts.  Per  Tint. 

Loin 9.00 

BeUy 12.00 

Backs 12.00 

Shoulders 9.00 

Hams 12.50 

Lard 13.00 

Total 67.50 

The  remaining  portion  of  the  animal  is  included  in  the 
head,  neck,  shanks,  feet,  and  viscera,  thus  constituting  32| 
per  cent,  of  the  total  weight,  making  the  standard  edible 
products  from  the  hog  constitute  slightly  more  than  two- 
thirds  of  the  total  live  weight. 

Based  on  the  short-rib  method  of  cutting  a  hog  carcass, 
from  heavy  weight  hogs  weighing  300  to  350  pounds,  the 
following  yields  will  be  available: 

Cuts.  Per  cent. 

Ribs 37.00 

Hams 12.50 

Shoulders 8.00 

Lard 14.50 

Total 72.00 


This  leaves  a  total  of  28  per  cent.,  which  is  included  in  the 
head,  viscera,  and  other  minor  parts  of  the  animal.  The 
variation  in  the  two  methods  of  cutting  and  the  size  of  the 
hog  makes  a  difference  of  4^  per  cent,  in  the  total  yield  of 
the  products. 

Details  of  Form. — A  somewhat  better  understanding  can 
be  obtained  of  the  desired  qualities  of  the  hog  by  making  a 
detailed  study  of  the  various  parts  as  follows. 


330  JUDGING  SWINE 

Head. — The  head  should  be  short,  straight  or  medium 
in  dish  and  broad  between  the  eyes.  The  eyes  should  be 
large,  clear,  and  prominent.  Features  of  the  breed  or  type 
should  be  especially  significant.  The  head  should  be  deep 
as  viewed  from  the  side,  showing  a  straight  face  or  medium 
dish,  a  large  muzzle,  and  open  nostrils. 

Ears. — ^The  ears  should  be  medium  in  size,  erect,  semi- 
erect,  or  pendant,  depending  on  the  breed,  and  covered  with  a 
short,  fine  coat  of  hair.  Heavy,  coarse,  pendant  ears  indicate 
inferior  quality.  The  Berkshire  has  an  erect  ear,  the  Poland- 
China  a  semidrooping  ear,  and  the  Chester  White  a  droop- 
ing or  pendant  ear.  These  factors  are  not  as  important  in 
judging  market  hogs  as  when  considering  animals  from  the 
breed  t^^pe  standpoint. 

Jowl.— The  jowl  should  be  firm,  trim,  and  closely  carried. 
A  large,  heavy,  pendant  jowl  is  objectionable,  as  it  indicates 
coarseness  of  quality  or  overdevelopment  in  condition.  A 
smooth,  trim  jowl  is  most  desirable,  as  this  condition  is 
usually  significant  of  quality.  Superfluous,  flabby  flesh 
or  fat  is  objectionable  in  this  region  both  in  breeding  and 
market  animals. 

Neck. — The  neck  of  the  hog  should  be  short,  broad,  deep, 
and  smoothly  and  evenly  blended  with  the  head  and  shoul- 
ders. A  long,  thin  neck  is  objectionable  as  it  usually  signifies 
inferior  breeding,  low  condition  or  general  unthriftiness.  The 
neck  of  the  hog  is  extremely  short,  especially  in  the  fat  type, 
there  being  a  longer,  more  pronounced  formation  in  the 
bacon  type  of  animal. 

Shoulders.- — The  shoulder  development  of  the  hog  is 
extremely  important,  as  the  form  of  it  is  indicative  of  several 
important  factors.  Large,  coarse,  open  shoulders  detract 
seriously  from  the  value  of  an  animal,  either  for  breeding 
or  feeding  purposes.  The  same  characteristics  will  be 
transmitted  by  the  breeding  animal,  and  such  a  condition 
is  objectionable  in  finished  animals  owing  to  the  relatively 
high  value  of  the  cuts  in  this  region.  The  shoulders  should 
be  broad,  although  not  to  such  an  extent  that  the  fore- 
width  of  the  body  cannot  be  carried  out  to  the  extremity. 
This  is  one  of  the  common  faults  of  the  hog  and  therefore 


DETAILS  OF  FORM  331 

attention  should  be  given  in  overcoming  this  objectionable 
characteristic.  The  shoulders  should  be  broad,  level,  smooth, 
and  compactly  covered  over  the  top  and  sides.  The  depres- 
sion characteristic  of  the  so-called  open  shoulder  indicates 
lack  of  condition  and  coarseness  of  quality. 

Chest. — The  chest  measurement  is  determined  by  the 
width  and  depth  of  the  animal  attained  through  the  body 
part  back  of  the  shoulders.  There  should  be  no  depression 
in  this  region,  as  such  would  interfere  with  the  normal 
constitutional  capacity  and  therefore  with  the  future  useful- 
ness. Good  width  and  depth  in  the  heart-girth  region  are 
significant  of  streng^  and  vigor.  Any  tendency  toward 
narrowness  at  the  base  of  the  chest  is  extremely  objectionable. 

Back. — The  back  should  be  long,  uniform  in  width  from 
shoulders  to  hindquarters,  smooth,  and  slightly  arched. 
There  is  a  decided  tendency  for  hogs  to  narrow  as  the  hind- 
quarters are  approached.  Special  discrimination  should  be 
made  against  an  animal  of  this  conformation. 

Sides  and  Ribs. — The  length  and  depth  of  the  body  are 
determined  largely  by  the  formation  of  the  ribs.  They 
should  spring  squarely  from  the  back  to  give  width  of  body, 
and  be  long  and  extend  low  to  give  depth  of  body.  The  coup- 
ling should  be  short.  The  sides  should  be  smooth,  extend  on 
a  direct  line  with  the  shoulders  and  thighs  and  be  free  from 
wrinkles,  creases,  or  any  other  characteristic  rough  condition. 

Flanks. — The  flanks  should  be  full  and  low.  High  flanks 
detract  from  the  usefulness  and  general  appearance  of  an 
animal.  They  give  the  impression  of  ranginess  which  is 
objectionable.  They  also  indicate  weak  constitution,  espe- 
cially the  foreflank,  which  determines  chest  capacity  in  a 
large  measure.  An  animal  cut  high  in  the  hindflank  seldom 
breeds  or  feeds  well. 

Feet  and  Legs. — The  legs  should  be  short,  straight,  strong, 
and  squareh'  placed  under  the  body.  The  pasterns  should 
be  upright  and  the  animal  stand  well  up  on  the  toes.  Low, 
weak  pasterns  are  very  undesirable. 


332  JUDGING  SWINE 

Score  Card  for  Fat  Hogs. 

Perfect  score. 

General  Appearance — 40  Eoints. 

Weight:  score  according  to  age 6 

Form:  low  set,  rectangular,  broad,  deep,  long,  smooth,  sym- 
metrical     10 

Quality:  refined  head,  smooth,  sides  free  from  wrinkles,  fine 

straight  hair,  clean  bone 10 

Condition:  thick,  even  covering  of  firm  flesh 10 

Temperament:  lymphatic,  disposed  to  fatten 4 

Head  and  Neck — 7  Points. 

Head:  short,  broad,  deep 

Snout:  comparatively  short,  fine 

Eyes:  large,  bright,  wide  apart 

Face:  moderately  dished,  according  to  breed,  broad  between 

the  eyes 

Earn:  medium  size,  pointed,  thin,  carried  well  up        ... 

Jowl:  full,  deep,  trim 

Neck:  thick,  deep,  short,  top  line  sharply  curved  upward 

Forequarters^ — 8  points. 

Shoulder:  wide,  smooth  on  sides,  compact  on  top        ...         4 

Breast:  prominent,  full 2 

Legs:  short,  straight,  strong,  clean  bone 2 

BoDY^ — ^31  points. 

Chest:  deep,  wide,  full,  no  constriction 3 

Back:  broad,  thickly  covered,  weU  supported,  arched       .      .        10 
Sides:  long,  deep,  smooth,  firm,  thickly  covered    ....         6 

Loin:  broad,  thickly  covered 10 

Flank:  deep,  full,  underline  straight 2 

Hindquarters — 14  points. 

Rump:  long,  broad,  level 2 

Ham:  wide,  deep,  full,  well  rounded,  firm 10 

Legs:  short,  straight,  strong,  clean  bone 2 

Total 100 


Breed  Characteristics. — The  various  breeds  are  character- 
ized by  the  differences  in  type,  size,  weight,  color  markings, 
thriftiness,  adaptabiUty,  maturity  and  condition  as  follows: 

Berkshire. — The  Berkshire  is  a  native  of  the  Shire  of 
Berk,  England.  The  breed  is  important,  not  only  as  a 
typical  breed  in  itself,  but  also  from  its  use  in  developing 
other  newer  breeds.  The  Berkshire  figured  prominently 
in  the  development  of  the  Poland-China  breed  of  swine  in 
Ohio.  Ordinarily  this  breed  classes  among  the  fat  types. 
The  writer  gives  it  a  place  between  the  fat  and  bacon  types, 
designating  it  as  a  semifat  breed.      Considered  from  the 


BERKSHIRE 


333 


standpoint  of  its  use  in  specific  bacon  production  it  comes 
much  nearer  filling  these  requirements  than  any  of  the  other 
breeds  belonging  to  the  fat  type.  In  size  the  Berkshire 
ranks  among  the  larger  breeds.  The  average  weight  of 
boars  in  fully  mature  condition  ranges  from  500  to  600 
pounds.  The  color  is  black  with  the  exception  of  six  white 
points,  namely:  the  snout,  the  four  feet,  and  the  tip  of  the 
tail.     White  may  appear  on  the  forearm,  shoulder  or  jowl 


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Fig.   13(3. — Berkshire  boar. 


without  disqualification.  One  or  more  black  points  may 
also  be  present.  However,  they  are  objectionable,  among 
most  American  breeders.  The  form  is  smooth,  compact, 
and  unusually  neat,  clean  and  trim  in  outline.  The  head  is 
short,  and  either  moderately  or  excessively  dished,  depend- 
ing upon  the  fancy  of  the  breeder.  The  face  is  broad,  the 
poll  usually  wide,  the  ears  erect  and  the  neck  and  jowl 
smooth  and  firm.  The  Berkshire  is  unusually  alert,  expres- 
sive in  facial  outlines  and  possesses  unusual  refinement 
otherwise,  being  a  typical  show  hog. 


334  JUDGING  SWINE 

Standard  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of  Points  for  Berk- 
shire Swine. 

Points. 

Color. — Black,  white  feet,  face  and  tip  of  tail,  but  skin  and  hair 
occasionally  showing  tinge  of  bronze  or  copper  color.  An  occa- 
sional splash  of  white  not  objectionable;  lack  of  either  of  white 
points  admissible 3 

Face  and  Snout. — Face  well  dished  and  broad  between  eyes; 
snout  short  and  broad     . 7 

Eyes. — Prominent,  clean,  clear,  large,  dark  hazel  or  gray  ...         2 

Ears. — Medium  size,  setting  well  apart,  carried  fairly  erect, 
inclining  forward,  especially  with  age 3 

Jowl. — Full,  firm,  not  flabby  or  hanging  too  low,  running  back  well 
on  neck 3 

Neck. — Full,  short  and  slightly  arched,  broad  on  top,  well  con- 
nected with  shoulder 3 

Hair. — Fine,  straight,  smooth,  lying  close  to  and  covering  the 
body  well;  free  from  bristles 3 

Skin. — Smooth  and  mellow 3 

Chest. — Deep,  full  and  wide,  with  good  heart  girth      ....         6 

Shoulder. — Smooth  and  even  on  top  and  in  line  with  side     .      .         6 

Side. — Deep,  smooth,  well  let  down,  straight  side  and  bottom 
lines 6 

Back. — Broad,  fuU,  strong,  level  or  slightly  arched;  ribs  well 
sprung 10 

Flank. — Extending  well  back  and  low  down  on  leg,  making  nearly 
a  straight  line  with  lower  part  of  side 5 

Loin. — Full,  wide  and  well  covered  with  flesh 6 

Ham. — Deep,  wide,  thick  and  firm,  extending  well  up  on  back 
and  holding  thickness  well  down  to  hock 10 

Tail.- — Well  up  on  line  with  back,  neither  too  fine,  short  or 
tapering 2 

Legs  and  Feet. — Straight  and  strong,  set  wide  apart,  short 
in  pastern,  with  hoofs  nearly  erect,  capable  of  carrying  great 
weight 10 

Size. — Size  all  that  is  possible  without  loss  of  quality  or  symmetry 
with  good  length.  Weight  in  good  condition,  boars  at  12 
months,  350  to  450  pounds;  at  24  months,  500  to  700  pounds; 
sows  at  12  months,  350  to  400  pounds;  at  24  months,  500  to  700 
pounds 6 

Appearance  and  Character. — Vigorous,  attractive,  of  good 
disposition,  firm  and  easy  movement 6 

Total 100 

Poland-China. — The  Poland-China  ranks  as  one  of  the 
extreme  fat  breeds.  It  is  an  American  product  characterized 
by  an  unusual  prevalence  or  accumulation  of  outside  fat. 
The  weight  of  boars  may  reach  as  high  as  500  to  600 
pounds  or  more  in  mature  breeding  specimens.  Like  the 
Berkshire,  the  breed  is  characterized  by  a  solid  black  color 


POLAND-CHINA 


335 


with  the  exception  of  six  white  points,  namely,  the  snout, 
four  feet  and  tip  of  tail.  One  or  more  black  points  are 
sometimes  found  but  they  are  not  desirable.  This,  however, 
is  a  fad  or  fancy  adhered  to  by  breeders.  One  of  the  chief 
objections  to  the  Poland-China  is  the  method  of  breeding 
which  has  been  followed,  this  reducing  the  size  and  vigor 
of  the  breed  as  a  whole.  The  modern  type  of  animal  is 
characterized  by  larger  bone,  more  vigor,  and  rustling  quali- 


FiG.  137. — Poland-China  boar. 


ties.  In  the  last  decade  considerable  attention  has  been 
given  to  the  improvement  of  the  breed  in  these  respects. 
The  head  of  the  Poland-China  is  broad  and  short,  the  face 
usually  straight,  the  neck  short  and  full,  the  body  long,  wide, 
deep,  and  the  animal  as  a  whole  comparatively  low  set. 
Ears  which  best  characterize  the  breed  are  semidrooping, 
the  upper  one-third  of  the  ear  breaking  over.  The  jowl  is 
usually  heavy,  the  legs  short,  and  the  thighs  plump.  Lack 
of  size,  small  litters,  a  drooping  rump,  and  inferior  rustling 
qualities  are  faults  with  the  breed. 


336  JUDGING  SWINE 

Standard  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of  Points  for  Poland- 
China  Swine. 

Points. 

Head  and  Face. — Head  short  and  wide;  cheeks  full;  jaws  broad, 
forehead  high  and  wide;  face  short,  smooth,  wide  between  the 
eyes,  tapering  from  eyes  to  point  of  nose  and  shghtly  dished 
surface,  even  and  regular 4 

Objections:  Head  long,  narrow,  coarse;  forehead  low  and  narrow 
or  contracted,  lower  jaw  extending  beyond  upper;  face  long; 
straight  and  narrow  between  the  eyes;  nose  coarse,  thick  or 
crooked,  ridgy,  or  dished  as  much  as  a  Berkshire. 

Eyes. — Large,  prominent,  bright,  lively,  clear  and  free  from 
wrinkled  or  fat  surroundings 2 

Objections:  Small,  dull,  bloodshot,  deepset  or  obscure;  vision 
impaired  by  wrinkles,  fat  or  other  causes. 

Ears. — Small,  thin,  soft,  silky,  attached  to  the  head  by  a  short 
and  small  knuck,  tips  pointing  forward  and  slightly  outward, 
and  the  forward  half  drooping  gracefully,  fully  under  control  of 
animal,  both  of  same  size,  position  and  shape 2 

Neck. — Wide,  deep,  short,  and  nicely  arched  at  top  from  poll  of 
head  to  shoulder 2 

Objection:  Long,  narrow,  thin,  flat  on  top,  not  extending  down 
to  breast  bone,  tucked  up. 

Jowl. — Full,  broad,  deep,  smooth  and  firm,  carrying  fulness  back  to 
near  point  of  shoulders,  and  below  line  of  lower  jaw,  so  that  lower 
line  will  be  as  low  as  breast-bone  when  head  is  carried  up  level         2 

Objections:  Light,  flabby,  thin,  wedge-shaped,  deeply  wrinkled, 
not  drooping  below  line  of  lower  jaw  and  not  carrying  fulness 
back  to  shoulder  and  brisket. 

Shoulder. — Broad,  deep  and  full,  not  extending  above  the  line  of 
back  and  being  as  wide  on  top  as  on  back,  carrying  size  down 
to  line  of  beUy  and  having  good  lateral  width 6 

Objections:  Narrow  and  not  same  depth  as  body,  narrow  at  top 
or  bottom,  extending  above  line  of  back,  less  than  body  in 
breadth  at  top  or  bottom  portions,  or  lacking  iij  lateral  width, 
shields  on  boars  under  eight  months  of  age,  or  large,  heavy 
shields  on  hogs  under  eighteen  months  of  age. 

Chest. — Large,  wide,  deep,  roomy,  indicating  plenty  of  room  for 
vital  organs,  making  a  large  girth  just  back  of  shoulders,  the 
breast-bone  extending  forward  so  as  to  show  slightly  in  front 
of  the  legs  and  extending  in  a  straight  line  back  to  end  of  breast- 
bone, showing  a  width  of  not  less  than  six  inches  between  fore- 
legs in  a  large,  full-grown  hog 12 

Objections:  Flat,  pinched,  narrow  at  top  or  either  end  of  breast- 
bone; breast-bone  crooked  or  not  extending  slightly  in  front 
of  forelegs. 

Back  and  Loin. — Broad,  straight  or  slightly  arched,  carrying 
same  width  from  shoulder  to  ham,  surface  even,  smooth,  free 
from  lumps,  crease  or  projection,  not  too  long,  but  broad  on  top, 
indicating  well-sprung  ribs,  should  not  be  higher  at  top  than 
at  shoulder,  and  should  not  fill  at  junction  with  side  so  that 
a  straight-edge  placed  along  top  of  side  will  touch  all  the  way 
from  point  of  shoulder  to  point  of  ham;  should  be  shorter  than 
lower  belly  line 14 

Carried  forward •    .      .      .      .       44 


POLAND-CHINA  337 

Points. 
Brought  forward 44 

Objections:  Narrow,  creased  back  of  shoulders,  swayed  or  hollow, 
drooping  below  a  straight  line,  humped  or  wrinkled,  too  long, 
or  sunfish  shaped,  loin  high,  narrow,  depressed  or  uneven,  width 
at  side  not  as  much  as  shoulder  and  ham. 

Sides  and  Ribs. — Sides  full,  smooth,  firm  and  deep,  carrying 
sides  down  to  belly  and  evenly  from  ham  to  shoulder,  ribs  long, 
strong,  well  sprung  at  top  and  bottom 10 

Objections:  Flat,  thin,  flabby,  pinched,  not  as  full  at  bottom  as 
at  top,  drawn  in  at  shoulder  so  as  to  produce  a  crease,  or  pinched 
or  tucked  up  and  in  as  it  approaches  the  ham,  lumpy,  or  uneven 
surface,  ribs  flat  or  too  short. 

Bflly  and  Flank. — Wide,  straight  and  full,  dropping  as  low  as 
flank  at  bottom  of  chest,  back  of  foreleg,  making  a  straight  line 
from  lorelegs  to  hindlegs;  flank  full  and  out  even  with  surround- 
ing portions  of  body,  belly  at  that  point  dropping  down  on  a  Une 
with  lower  line  of  chest;  the  loose  skin  connecting  ham  and 
belly  being  on  a  line  even  with  bottom  of  side 4 

Objections:  Belly  narrow,  pinched,  sagging  or  flabby,  flank  thin, 
tucked  up  or  drawn  in. 

Hams  and  Rump. — Hams  broad,  full,  long  and  wide.  They 
should  be  as  wide  at  point  of  the  hip  as  at  the  swell  of  ham. 
Buttocks  large  and  full,  should  project  he3'ond  and  come  down 
upon  and  fill  full  between  the  hocks.  The  lower  front  part  of 
the  ham  should  be  full,  and  stifle  well  covered  with  flesh  and  a 
gradual  rounding  toward  the  hock.  Rump  should  have  a 
rounded  slope  from  loin  to  root  of  tail;  same  width  as  back  and 
filling  out  full  on  each  side  and  above  the  tail      .....        10 

Objections:  Ham  narrow,  short,  thin,  not  projecting  beyond  and 
coming  down  to  hock;  cut  up  too  high  in  crotch  twist;  lacking 
in  fulness  at  top  and  bottom,  lacking  in  width  from  stifle  straight 
back,  lower  forepart  thin  and  flat,  straight  from  root  of  tail  to 
hock;  buttocks  light,  thin  or  flabby.  Rump  flat,  narrow  and 
peaked  at  root  of  tail,  too  steep. 

Feet  and  Lep.s — Legs  medium  length,  straight,  set  well  apart 
and  squarely  under  body,  tapering,  well  muscled  and  wide 
above  knee  and  hock,  below  hock  and  knee  round  and  tapering, 
capable  of  sustaining  weight  of  an  animal  in  full  flesh  without 
breaking  down,  bone  firm  and  fine  texture,  pasterns  short  and 
nearly  upright;  feet  firm,  short,  tough  and  free  from  defects     .       10 

Objections:  Legs  long,  slim,  coarse,  crooked,  muscles  small  above 
hock  and  knee,  bone  large,  coarse,  as  large  at  foot  as  above  knee, 
pasterns  long  and  slim,  crooked  or  weak,  the  hocks  turned  in 
or  out  of  straight  line,  legs  too  close  together,  hoofs  long,  slim 
and  weak,  toes  spreading  or  crooked  or  unable  to  bear  up  weight 
of  animal  without  breaking  down. 

Tail. — Well  set  on,  smooth,  tapering  and  carried  in  a  curl      .      .         1 

Objections:  Coarse,  long,  crooked  or  hanging  straight  down  like  a 
rope. 

Coat. — Fine,  straight,  smooth,  laying  close  to  and  covering  the 
body  well,  not  clipped,  evenly  distributed  over  the  body     .      .         3 

Carried  forward 82 

22 


338  JUDGING  SWINE 

Points. 

Brought  forward 82 

Objections:  Bristles,  hair  coarse,  harsh,  thin,  wavy  or  curly, 
swirls,  standing  up.  ends  of  hair  spUt  and  brown,  not  evenly 
distributed  over  all  the  body  except  belly.  Chpped  coats 
should  be  cut  1.5  points. 

Color. — Black,  with  white  in  face  and  lower  jaw,  white  on  feet 
and  tip  of  tail,  a  few  small,  clear  white  spots  on  body  not  objec- 
tionable        4 

Objections:  Solid  black,  more  than  one-fourth  white,  sandy  hair 
in  spots,  a  grizzled  or  speckled  appearance. 

Size. — Large  for  age  and  condition.  Boars  two  years  old  and  over 
if  in  good  flesh,  should  weigh  not  less  than  500  pounds.  Sows 
same  age  and  condition,  not  less  than  450  pounds.  Boars 
eighteen  months  old,  in  good  condition,  not  less  than  400 
pounds;  sows  350  pounds.  Boars  twelve  months  old,  not  less 
than  300  pounds;  sows  300  pounds.  Boars  and  sows  six  months 
old,  not  less  than  150  pounds.     Other  ages  in  proportion     .      .         5 

Objections:  Overgrowth,  coarse,  gangling,  or  hard  to  fatten  at 
any  age. 

Action  and  Style. — Action  easy,  vigorous,  quick  and  graceful. 
Style  attractive,  high  carriage  and  in  male  testicles  should  be 
of  same  size  and  carriage  readily  seen  and  yet  not  too  large      .         3 

Objections:  Slow,  dull,  clumsy,  awkward,  difficulty  in  getting 
up  when  down,  low  carriage,  wabbhng  walk.  In  males  testicles 
not  easily  seen,  not  of  same  size  or  carriage,  too  large,  or  only 
one  showing. 

Condition. — Healthy,  skin  clear  of  scurf,  scales  or  sores,  soft 
and  mellow  to  the  touch,  flesh  fine,  evenly  laid  on  and  free  from 
lumps  or  wrinkles.  Hair  soft  and  lying  close  to  the  body,  good 
feeding  quahties 2 

Objections:  Unhealthy  skin,  scaly,  wrinkly,  scabby,  or  harsh, 
flabbiness  or  lumpy  flesh,  too  much  fat  for  breeding.  Hair 
harsh,  dry  and  standing  up  from  body,  poor  feeders,  deafness, 
partial  or  total. 

Disposition. — Quiet,  gentle  and  easily  handled 2 

Objections:  Cross,  restless,  vicious  or  wild. 

Symmetry  of  points 2 

Total 100 

Disqualifications. 

Form. — Upright  ears;  small,  cramped  chest;  crease  back  of  shoulders 
and  over  back  so  as  to  cause  a  depression  in  back  easily  noticed; 
deformed  or  badly  crooked  legs;  feet  broken  down  so  that  animal 
walks  on  pastern  joints. 

Size. — China  build  or  not  two-thirds  large  enough  for  age. 

Condition. — Excessive  fatness;  barrenness;  deformed;  seriously  dis- 
eased; total  blindness,  caused  by  defective  eyes,  or  by  reason  of  fat 
or  loose  and  wrinkled  skin  over  the  eyes. 

Score. — Less    than    sixty    points. 

Pedigree. — Not  eligible  to  record. 


DUROC-JERSEY  339 

Duroc-Jersey. — The  Duroc-Jersey  is  one  of  the  leading 
fat  breeds.  It  is  characterized  by  a  red  color  which  may 
vary  from  light  to  dark.  A  tendency  to  black  is  objection- 
able, a  cherry  red  color  being  preferred.  The  size  of  the 
Duroc-Jersey  is  on  the  average  about  the  same  as  the  Poland- 
China  or  Chester  White.  Mature  boars  may  reach  as  high  as 
600  pounds  or  more  in  weight,  the  sows  averaging  100 
pounds  less  at  the  same  age  and  condition.  The  breed 
has  good  rustling  qualities  and  is  very  popular  in  many 
sections.     A  tendencv  to  coarse  bone  and  lack  of  refinement 


Fig.  138. — Duroc-Jersey  boar. 

are  objections  to  the  breed.  The  head  is  reasonably  short 
with  a  moderate  dish.  The  ears  are  drooping  or  arching 
in  appearance.  The  neck  is  short  and  full,  the  shoulders 
reasonabl}'  compact,  the  sides  of  good  length  and  the  quarters 
or  thighs  reasonably  smooth  and  well  filled.  The  principal 
points  in  favor  of  the  breed  are  the  size,  rustling  qualities, 
and  their  economic  producing  qualities.  Excessive  fat 
formation,  lack  of  quality,  smoothness,  and  refinement  are 
the  principal  objections.  As  a  whole,  however,  the  breed 
conforms  very  closely  to  the  fat-hog  type.  In  many  respects 
it  favors  the  Poland-China  in  size,  general  form  and  finish. 


340 


JUDGING  SWINE 


Scale  of  Points  for  Duroc- Jersey  Swine. 

Points. 

Head 4 

Eyes 2 

Ears 2 

Neck 2 

Jowl 2 

Shoulder 6 

Chest 12 

Back  and  Loin 14 

Sides  and  Ribs 9 

Belly  and  Flank 4 

Ham  and  Rump 10 

Feet  and  Legs 9 

Tail 1 

Coat 3 

Color 2 

Size 8 

Action  and  Style 3 

Condition 2 

Disposition 2 

Symmetry  of  Points 3 

Total 100 

Chester   White. — The   Chester   White   breed   received    its 
name   from   the  soHd  white   color  characteristics.^     Bluish 


Fig.   139.— Chester  White  boar. 


spots  on  the  skin  are  permissible.     The  breed  ranks  as  a 
strictly  fat  breed.     Mature  boars  range  in  weight  from  500 

'  Originated  in  Chester  County,  Pa. 


CHESTER  WHITE  341 

to  650  pounds.  It  ranks  in  size  with  the  other  leading  fat 
breeds.  One  of  the  principal  objections  to  it  is  its  general 
lack  of  refinement.  The  ears  are  often  heavy  and  extremely 
pendant,  the  shoulders  prominent,  and  the  hair  coarse  and 
curly.  The  head  is  rather  large,  the  face  straight,  the  jowl 
large  and  the  body  proper  inclined  to  be  rough.  The  breed 
has  the  extreme  tendency  to  narrow  materially  from  the  fore- 
to  the  hindquarters. 

The  O.  I.  C.  breed,  meaning  the  Ohio  Improved  Chester 
White,  is  merely  an  offspring  from  the  original  Chester 
White,  having  been  decidedly  improved  in  quality  and 
conformation.  The  size  has  been  somewhat  decreased  and 
the  attributes  of  quality  and  compactness  introduced. 
Considered  as  a  whole,  the  improved  form  of  the  Chester 
White  is  a  very  acceptable  breed.  The  body  has  good  width 
and  carries  out  well.  Coarseness  in  bone,  prominent  shoul- 
ders and  general  lack  of  quality  are  still  faults,  however, 
with  some  specimens  of  the  breed. 

Standard  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of  Points  for  O.  I.  C. 

Swine. 

Points. 

Color. — White.  Black  spots  in  hair  disquahfy,  but  bhie  spots 
in  hide  (commonly  known  as  freckles),  while  objectionable,  do 
not  argue  impurity  of  blood 2 

Objections:  Color  any  other  than  white. 

Head  and  Face. — Head  short  and  wide;  cheeks  neat  (not  too 
full);  jaws  broad  and  strong;  forehead  medium,  high  and  wide; 
face  short  and  smooth;  wide  between  the  eyes,  which  should 
be  prominent,  clear,  and  bright  and  free  from  fat  surroundings; 
nose  neat,  tapering  and  slightly  dished 5 

Objections:  Head  long,  narrow  or  coarse;  forehead  low  and  nar- 
row; jaws  contracted  and  weak;  face  long,  narrow  and  straight; 
nose  coarse,  clumsy  or  dished  like  a  Berkshire;  eyes  small, 
deeply  sunken  or  obscure;  impau'ed  vision. 

Ears. — Medium  size;  soft;  not  too  thick;  not  clumsy;  pointing 
forward  and  slightly  outward;  drooping  gracefully  and  fully 
under  control  of  the  animal 2 

Objections:  Too  large  or  too  small;  coarse;  thick;  stiff  or  upright, 
drooping  too  close  to  face;  not  under  control. 

Brisket. — Full;  well  let  dowm;  joined  well  to  jowl  in  line  with  belly         3 

Objections:  Narrow;  tucked  up  or  depressed. 

Jowl.- — Smooth;  neat;  firm;  full;  carrying  fulness  well  back  to 
shoulders  and  brisket  when  head  is  carried  up  level     ...         2 

Objections:  Light;  rough  and  deeply  wrinkled;  too  large  and 
flabby;  not  carrying  fulness  back  to  shoulders  and  brisket. 

Carried  forward 14 


342  JUDGING  SWINE 

Points. 
Brought  forward 14 

Neck. — Wide;  deep;  short  and  nicely  arched;  neatly  tapering 
from  head  to  shoulder 3 

Objections:  Narrow,  thin;  long;  flat  on  top;  tucked  up;  not  extend- 
ing down  to  breast-bone. 

Shoulders. — Broad;  deep  and  full;  extending  in  line  with  the 
side,  and  carrying  size  down  to  line  of  belly 6 

Objections:  Deficient  in  width  or  depth;  extending  above  hne  of 
back;  thick  beyond  hne  of  side  and  hams;  shields  on  boars  too 
coarse  and  prominent. 

Chest  and  Heart  Girth. — Full  around  the  heart  and  back  of 
the  shoulders;  ribs  extending  well  down;  wide  and  full  back  of 
forelegs 10 

Objections:  Narrow;  pinched;  heart  girth  less  than  flank  measure 
or  length  of  body  from  top  of  head  to  root  of  tail;  or  creased 
back  of  shoulders. 

Back. — Broad;  straight  or  slightly  arched;  uniform  width;  free 
from  lumps  or  rolls;  same  height  and  width  at  shoulder  as  at  ham         7 

Objections:  Narrow;  swayed;  humped;  creasing  back  of  shoul- 
ders; sunfish-shaped;  uneven  width;  lumps  or  rolls. 

Sides. — Full;  smooth;  deep;  carrying  size  down  to  line  of  belly; 
even  with  line  of  ham  and  shoulder 5 

Objections:  Flat;  thin;  flabby;  uneven  surface;  compressed  at 
bottom;  shrunken  at  shoulder  and  ham. 

Ribs. — Long;  well  sprung  at  top  and  bottom;  giving  animal  a 
square  form 7 

Objections:  Too  short;  flat. 

Loin. — Broad  and  full 7 

Objections:  Narrow;  depressed. 

Belly. — Same  width  as  back;  full;  straight;  drooping  as  low  at 
flank  as  at  bottom  of  chest;  line  of  lower  edge  running  parallel 
with  sides 4 

Objections:  Narrow;  pinched;  sagging  or  flabby. 

Flank. — Full  and  even  with  body     . 2 

Objections:  Thin,  tucked  up  or  drawn  in. 

Ham  and  Rump. — Broad;  full;  long;  wide  and  deep;  admitting 
of  no  swells;  buttock  full,  neat  and  clean;  stifle  weU  covered 
with  flesh,  nicely  tapering  toward  the  hock;  rump  shghtly 
rounding  from  loin  to  root  of  tail,  same  width  as  back,  making 
an  even  line  with  sides 10 

Objections:  Narrow;  short;  not  filled  out  to  stifle;  too  much  cut 
up  in  crotch  or  twist;  not  coming  down  to  hock;  buttocks 
flabby;  rump  flat,  narrow,  too  long,  too  steep,  sharp  or  peaked 
at  root  of  tail. 

Tail. — Small;  smooth;  nicely  tapering;  root  slightly  covered  with 
flesh;  carried  in  a  curl 2 

Objections:  Coarse;  too  long;  clumsy;  straight. 

Legs. — Medium  length;  strong  and  straight;  set  well  apart  and 
well  under  body;  bone  of  good  size;  firm;  well  muscled;  wide 
above  knee  and  hock,  round  and  tapering  below  knee  and  hock, 
enabling  the  animal  to  carry  its  weight  with  ease;  pasterns 
short,  and  nearly  upright 5 

Carried  forward 82 


HAMPSHIRE  343 

Points. 

Brought  forward 82 

Objections:  Too   short   or   too   long;    weak;    crooked;    too    close 

together;   muscles  weak;  bone   too  large  and  coarse,  without 

taper;  pasterns  long,  crooked  or  slim. 
Feet. — Short;  firm;  tough;  animal  standing  well  up  on  toes  .      .         8 
Objections:  Hoofs  long,   slim,  weak;    toes  spreading,   crooked  or 

turned  up. 
Coat. — Fine;  either  straight  or  wavy,  with  preference  for  straight; 

evenly  distributed  and  covering  the  body  well;  nicely  clipped 

coats,  no  objection 3 

Objections:  Bristles;  swirls;   hair   coarse,   thin,  standing  up,  not 

evenly  distributed  over  all  the  body  except  the  belly. 
Action. — Easy   and  graceful;    high  carriage;  active;  gentle  and 

easily  handled.    In  males  testicles  should  be  readily  seen,  and 

of  same  size  and  carriage 3 

Objections:  Sluggish;  awkward;  low  carriage;  wild;  vicious.      In 

males,  testicles  not  distinctly  visible,  or  not  of  same  size  and 

carriage. 
Symmetry. — A  fit  proportion  of  the  several  parts  of  the  body  to 

each  other,  forming  a  harmonious  combination 4 

Objections:  A    disproportionate    development    in    one    or    more 

points;  or  lack  of  proper  development  in  any  point. 

Total 100 

Hampshire. — The  Hampshire  or  Thin  Rind,  as  it  is  some- 
times designated,  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  Hampshire, 
England,  although  the  origin  is  somewhat  obscure.  The  breed 
is  usually  characterized  by  a  white  belt,  which  completely 
encircles  the  body,  beginning  at  the  back  of  the  forelegs  or 
shoulder  origin  and  extending  back,  sometimes  about  midway 
on  the  body.  The  forefeet  and  legs  are  usually  white,  the 
remainder  of  the  body  being  solid  black.  Some  animals 
are  almost  pure  black.  This  standard  is  used  sometimes 
to  avoid  the  extension  of  the  belt  over  the  body  which 
should  range  from  four  to  twelve  inches  wide.  Black  speci- 
mens are  not  uncommon.  The  breed  has  been  classed  both 
in  the  fat  and  bacon  types.  Barrows  have  been  shown 
mostly  in  fat  classes.  The  size  of  the  Hampshire  ranges 
from  400  to  500  pounds  in  mature  breeding  males.  Usually, 
however,  this  weight  is  not  obtained  under  average  con- 
ditions. The  head  of  the  Hampshire  is  of  medium  size, 
the  face  straight,  and  rather  long  and  full.  The  ears  are 
usually  erect,  the  jowl  is  trim,  the  shoulders  smooth  and 
compact,  the  back  slightly  arched,  the  sides  smooth  and 


344  JUDGING  SWINE 

deep,  thus  characterizing  good,  useful  form.  The  legs  are 
somewhat  long,  although  reasonably  strong  and  straight. 
The  breed  is  very  popular  considering  the  time  of  introduc- 
tion into  this  country.  It  has  shown  a  good  account  of 
itself  in  individual,  lot,  and  car-load  showings  in  some  of  the 
larger  live  stock  shows. 


''■£,■'  •"  •          -/-Hte^M^   *K\ 

^■f^^  ../•''    .-  .  '.•  >Vf'-^ ''•-••' V 

b  "■■^:-v''''-'-|^k 

Fig.   140. — Hampshire  sow. 

Standard  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of  Points  for  Hamp- 
shire Swine. 

Points. 

Head  and  Face. — Head  medium  length,  rather  narrow,  cheeks 

not  full;  face  nearly  straight  and  medium  width  between  the 

eyes,  surface  even  and  regular 4 

Objections:  Head  large,  coarse  and  ridgy,  nose  crooked  or  much 

dished. 
EYES.^Bright  and  lively,  free  from  wrinkles  or  fat  surroundings         2 
Objections:  Small,  deep  or  obscure,  or  vision  impaired  by  fat  or 

other  cause. 
Ears. — Medium    length,    thin,    slightly    incliaed    outward    and 

forward 2 

Objections:  Large,  coarse,  thick,  large  or  long  knuck,  drooping  or 

not  under  good  control  of  the  animal. 
Neck.^ — Short,  well  set  to  the  shoulders,  tapering  from  shoulder 

to  head 2 

Obieclions:  Long,  thick  or  bulky. 

Jowl. — Light  and  tapering  from  neck  to  point,  neat  and  firm      .         2 

Objections:  Large,  broad,  deep  or  flabby. 

Shoulders. — Deep,  medium  width  and  fulness,  well  in  line   with 

back 6 

Objections:  Narrow  on  top  or  bottom,  thick    beyond  line  with 

sides  and  hams. 

Carried  forward 18 


HAMPSHIRE  345 

Points. 
Brought  forward 18 

Chest. — Large,  deep  and  roomy;  full  girth,  extending  down  even 
with  line  of  belly 12 

Objections:  Narrow  at  top  or  bottom;  small  girth,  cramped  or 
tucked  up. 

Back  and  Loin. — Back  straight  or  slightly  arched ;- medium 
breadth,  with  nearly  uniform  thickness  from  shoulders  to  hams 
and  full  at  loins;  sometimes  higher  at  hips  than  at  shoulders    .        15 

Objections:  Narrow,  creased  or  dropped  behind  shoulders;  surface 
ridgy  or  uneven. 

Sides  and  Ribs.^ — Sides  smooth,  full,  firm,  carry  size  evenly 
from  shoulders  to  hams;  ribs  strong,  well  sprung  at  top  and 
bottom 8 

Objections:  Sides  thin,  flat,  flabby  or  creased;  ribs  not  well 
sprung. 

Belly  and  Flank. — Straight  and  full,  devoid  of  grossness;  flank 
full  and  running  nearly'  on  line  with  sides 6 

Objections:  Belly  sagging  or  flabby;  flank  thin  or  tucked  up. 

Hams  and  Rump. — Hams  of  medium  width,  long  and  deep;  rump 
slightly  rounded  from  loin  to  root  of  tail;  buttock  full,  neat  and 
firm,  devoid  of  flabbiness  or  excessive  fat 10 

Objections:  Ham  narrow,  cut  too  high  in  crotch,  buttock  flabby, 
rump  too  fat,  too  narrow  or  too  steep,  or  peeked  at  root  of  tail. 

Legs  and  Feet. — Legs  medium  length,  set  well  apart  and 
squarely  under  body,  wide  above  knee  and  hock,  and  rounded 
and  well  muscled  below,  tapering,  bone  medium,  pasterns 
short  and  nearly  upright,  toes  short  and  firm,  enabling  the 
animal  to  carry  its  w^eight  with  ease 10 

Objections:  Legs  too  long,  slim,  crooked,  coarse  or  short;  weak 
muscles  above  hock  and  knee-bone  large  and  coarse  and  legs 
without  taper,  pasterns  too  long  to  correspond  w'ith  length  of 
leg,  too  crooked  or  too  slender;  feet  long,  slim  and  weak;  toes 
spreading,  too  long,  crooked  or  turned  up. 

Tail. — Medium  length,  slightly  curled 1 

Objections:  Coarse,  long,  clumsy,  swinging  like  a  pendulum. 

Coat.- — Fine,  straight,  smooth 2 

Objections:  Bristles  or  swirls,  coarse  or  curly. 

Color. — Black,  with  exception  of  white  belt  encircling  body,  in- 
cluding forelegs 2 

Objections:  White  running  high  on  hindlegs,  or  extending  more 
than  one-fourth  length  of  body,  or  solid  black. 

Size. — Large  for  conditions:  boar,  two  years  and  over,  450;  sow, 
same  age,  400;  eighteen  months  boar,  350;  sow^  325;  twelve 
months  boar  or  sow,  300;  six  months,  both  sexes,  140     ..      .         5 

Action  and  Style. — Active,  vigorous,  quick  and  graceful;  style, 
attractive  and  spirited 4 

Objections:  Dull,  sluggish  and  clumsy. 

Condition. — Healthy,  skin  free  from  all  defects,  flesh  evenly  laid 
on  and  smooth  and  firm,  not  patchy,  and  devoid  of  all  excess 
of  grossness 4 

Objections:  Skin  scurfy,  scaly,  mangy  or  otherwise  unhealthy;  hair 
harsh,  dwarfed  or  cramped,  not  growthy. 

Disposition. — Docile,  quiet  and  easily  handled 3 

Objections:  Cross,  restless,  vicious  or  with  no  ambition. 

Total 100 


346  JUDGING  SWINE 

Disqualifications. 

Color. — Spotted  or  more  than  two-thirds  white. 

Form. — Any  radical  deformity,  ears  very  large  or  drooping  over  eyes, 

crooked  or  weak  legs  or  broken-down  feet. 
Condition. — Seriously    impaired    or    diseased,     excessive    grossness, 

barrenness  in  animals  over  two  years  of  age,  chuffy  or  squabby  fat. 
Size. — Not  two-thirds  standard  weight. 
Pedigree. — Not  eligible  to  record. 

Middle  Yorkshire.— The  Middle  Yorkshire  is  a  smaller  and 
fatter  type  of  animal  than  the  Large  Yorkshire,  which  is  a 
strictly  bacon  breed.  The  color  is  white  and  the  size  ranks 
between  the  large  and  small  types  of  the  breed.  This  is  not 
a  recognized  breed  in  the  same  sense  as  the  Large  or  Small 
Yorkshire.  Li  many  instances  it  is  the  result  of  a  cross 
between  the  Large  and  Small  Yorkshire  breeds,  which  class  in 
the  bacon  and  fat  type  respectively.  Although  bred  in  this 
way  the  Middle  Yorkshire  is  more  of  a  fat  type  of  hog,  thus 
more  nearly  meeting  the  American  ideal  in  respect  to  form 
and  finish  than  the  Large  or  Small  Yorkshire,  the  latter 
being  too  small  when  matured  to  be  an  economic  producer. 
The  Large  Yorkshire  is  the  only  type  of  this  breed  of  impor- 
tance in  this  country.  Knowledge  of  Middle  Yorkshire  char- 
acteristics is  therefore  more  important  from  an  authoritative 
than  from  a  practical  standpoint.  Middle  Yorkshires  are 
recognized  as  a  breed  in  their  original  home.  Compared 
with  the  Large  Yorkshire,  this  breed  is  smaller,  having 
greater  fat-producing  qualifications  and  more  refinement 
in  form  and  finish. 

Small  Yorkshire. — The  Small  Yorkshire  belongs  to  the  fat 
type,  although  it  is  not  important,  as  a  breed,  in  this 
country.  The  size  is  small,  ranking  as  one  of  the  lightest 
breeds  of  swine  produced.  The  weight  ranges  on  the  aver- 
age from  175  to  200  pounds  at  maturity.  In  a  general 
way  it  is  comparable  in  form  to  the  Essex.  The  color  is 
solid  white  the  same  as  the  large  type  of  the  breed.  Black 
spots  may  occur  on  the  skin.  The  form  is  rather  square  and 
compact,  specimens  of  the  breed  being  easily  fattened  at 
almost  any  stage  of  natural  maturity.  The  head  is  short, 
the  neck  full  and  firm,  the  jowl  compact,  the  body  com- 
paratively   short,    although    quite   deep   and    symmetrical. 


VICTORIA  347 

The  hindquarters  are  full,  plump  and  extend  well  down  to 
the  hocks.  The  quality  of  the  breed  is  very  good,  although 
the  carcass  contains  too  much  fat  and  therefore  is  not  in 
special  market  demand.  Pigs  from  this  breed  are  used 
often  for  roasting  purposes.  The  chief  objections  to  them 
are  the  small  size,  excessive  amount  of  fat  and  rather  slow 
maturing  qualities.  Information  is  of  interest  more  from 
an  authoritative  than  from  a  practical  standpoint. 

Essex. — The  Essex  breed  of  swine  has  never  become 
popular  primarily  because  of  its  small  size.  It  is  reasonably 
early  maturing  and  from  this  standpoint  is  acceptable, 
although  it  is  not  an  economical  producer  of  pork.  It  ranks 
among  the  smallest  of  the  breeds.  The  breed  color  is  solid 
black,  without  exception.  The  body  is  rather  cylindrical 
in  form,  having  reasonably  good  length  and  depth  of  body. 
The  head  is  short  and  broad,  the  face  slightly  dished,  the 
ears  small  and  usually  erect,  the  neck  short  and  compact, 
the  back  slighth'  arched,  the  sides  smooth  and  the  quarters 
and  thighs  very  well  developed.  The  quality  ranks  well, 
the  bone  being  of  medium  size  and  fine  texture.  The 
hair  is  usually  fine,  straight,  smooth,  and  uniformly  dis- 
tributed over  the  body.  The  shoulders  are  smooth  and 
compact,  the  jowl  trim,  neat  and  closely  carried.  The  breed 
is  not  adapted  to  productive  swine  husbandry,  at  least  on  a 
large  scale.  The  chief  objection  is  in  the  size  and  weight 
attained.  This  breed  represents  one  of  the  extreme  fat 
types  of  English  production,  the  origin  being  in  the  county 
of  Essex. 

Victoria. — The  Victoria  breed  is  of  two  types,  one  originat- 
ing in  Indiana  and  the  other  in  New  York.  The  former  is 
the  result  of  crossing  several  of  the  leading  breeds  already 
discussed,  principally  the  Poland-China,  Berkshire,  Chester 
White,  and  Suffolk.  It  belongs  to  the  fat-hog  type,  although 
it  is  not  popular  or  widely  disseminated.  The  size  of  the 
Victoria  ranges  from  400  to  550  pounds  at  maturity.  The 
breed  is  characterized  by  a  solid  white  color.  The  body  is 
broad,  comparatively  deep  and  long.  The  head  is  broad 
and  the  face  moderately  dished.  The  ears  are  medium  in 
size  and  semierect,  although  they  are  inclined  sometimes  to 


348  JUDGING  SWINE 

droop.  The  quality  is  very  good,  the  hair  being  of  medium 
length,  straight  and  fine  in  quality.  The  body  is  compara- 
tively low  set  and  compact.  The  shoulders  are  inclined  to 
be  thick  and  heavy  at  times,  thus  making  the  animal  appear 
narrow  over  the  loin  and  through  the  hindquarters.  This 
breed  has  not  been  widely  introduced  into  the  swine  produc- 
ing sections.  It  has  been  much  more  popular  in  the  states 
where  it  originated.  On  the  whole,  the  breed  is  not  rela- 
tively important  as  it  has  no  special  qualifications  over 
other  breeds.  The  type  originated  in  New  York  is  likely 
extinct. 

Cheshire. — The  Cheshire  breed  is  not  an  important  breed 
except  under  localized  conditions.  It  ranks  in  the  middle- 
weight class,  the  weight  ranging  from  400  to  600  pounds 
in  well-matured  specimens.  This  represents  the  extreme, 
however,  as  the  average  is  considerably  lower.  The  color  is 
pure  white,  although  black  spots  sometimes  occur  on  the 
skin.  The  form  is  reasonably  straight  and  smooth  in  out- 
line. The  head  and  face  are  inclined  to  be  long  and  the 
latter  slightly  dished.  The  ears  are  small  and  usually 
erect.  The  back  is  slightly  arched  and  attains  quite  good 
width.  The  shoulders  are  smooth  and  compact,  the  sides 
straight  and  smooth,  although  somewhat  lacking  in  depth. 
The  quality  is  good,  the  bone  being  quite  fine  and  the  hair 
smooth,  straight,  and  evenly  distributed.  The  principal 
merit  of  the  breed  is  its  quality  and  refinement.  Economic 
conditions  have  not  fostered  the  development  of  this  breed, 
owing  to  the  better  adaptation  of  other  standard  qualified 
breeds.  The  Cheshire  originated  in  the  northern  part  of 
New  York  where  the  climate  is  cold  and  not  especially  suited 
to  swine  growing. 

Standard  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of  Points  for  Cheshire 

Swine. 

Form.- — Short  to  medium  in  length,  short  in  proportion  to  length 
of  body;  face  somewhat  dished  and  wide  between  the  eyes;  ears 
small,  erect,  in  old  animals  often  slightly  pointed  forward;  neck 
short;  shoulders  broad  and  full;  hips  broad,  body  long,  broad 
and  deep;  hams  broad,  nearly  straight  with  back,  and  running 
well  down  toward  hock;  legs  long  and  slim,  set  well  apart  and 
supporting  the  body  on  the  toes;  tail  small  and  slim;  hair  fine, 
medium  in  thickness  and  quantity;  color  white.  When  grown 
and  well  fattened  should  dress  from  400  to  600  pounds. 


MULE-FOOT  SWINE  349 

Scale  op  Points. 

Points. 

Head. — Short  to  medium  in  length,  short  in  proportion  to  length 

of  body 8 

Face. — Somewhat  dished  and  wide  between  the  eyes   ....  8 

Jowl. — Medium  in  fulness 3 

Ears. — Small,  fine,  erect,  and  in  old  animals  .«!lightly  pointing 

forward 5 

Neck. — Short  and  broad 3 

Shoulders. — Broad,  full  and  deep 6 

Girth. — Around  heart 8 

Back. — Long,  broad  and  straight  nearly  to  root  of  tail      ...  10 

Side. — Deep  and  full,  nearly  straight  on  bottom  line  ....  7 
Flank. — ^Well  back  and  low  down,   making  flank  girth  nearly 

equal  to  heart  girth 3 

Hams. — Broad  and  nearly  straight  with  back,  and  running  down 

well  over  toward  hock 10 

Legs. — Small  and  slim,  set  well  apart,  supporting  body  well  on 

toes 10 

Tail. — Small,  slim  and  tapering 3 

Hair. — Fine,  medium  in  thickness  and  quantity 3 

Color. — White,  and  colored  hairs  to  disqualify,  color  or  spots  in 

skin  objectionable 2 

Skin. — Fine   and    pliable,    small   blue   spots   objectionable,    but 

allowable 3 

Symmetry. — Animal  well  proportioned,  handsome  and  stylish      .  8 

Total 100 

Mule-foot  Swine. — The  Mule-foot  breed  of  swine  derives 
its  name  from  the  pecuHar  structure  of  the  foot  which  does 
not  have  the  cleft  or  division  in  the  hoof.  The  origin  is  not 
authoritatively  known.  The  breed  has  been  introduced  in  a 
few  states,  principally  through  the  middle  west,  but  has  not 
gained  a  wide  foothold.  The  breed  is  medium  in  size,  solid 
black  in  color  and  only  fair  in  refinement  and  maturing 
qualities.  A  few  herds  have  been  shown  at  various  fairs 
throughout  the  country  where  they  have  attracted  special 
attention  from  the  standpoint  of  curiosity.  One  of  the 
serious  objections  to  the  breed  is  its  inability  to  with- 
stand heavy  feeding.  Moderate  or  excessive  weight  causes 
animals  to  break  down  in  the  pasterns  or  w^eaken  otherwise 
in  the  feet  which  are  small,  narrow,  and  contracted.  The 
breed  has  been  advertised  as  being  immune  from  cholera 
infestation,  but  practical  tests  have  not  indicated  the  relia- 
bility of  these  statements.  The  breed  is  not  important  at  the 
present  time.  It  is  more  interesting  from  an  authoritative 
and  breed-description  standpoint  than  from  practical  utility. 


350  JUDGING  SWINE 

Scale  of  Points  for  Mule-foot  Swine. 

Points. 

Head  and  Face 4 

Eyes 2 

Ears 2 

Neck 2 

Jowl 2 

Shoulder 6 

Chest    . 12 

Back  and  Loin 15 

Sides  and  Ribs 8 

Belly  and  Flank 6 

Ham  and  Rump 10 

Feet  and  Legs 10 

Tail 1 

Coat 2 

Color 2 

Size 5 

Action  and  Style 4 

Condition 4 

Disposition 3 

Total 100 


Bacon  Type. — The  former  discussion  on  the  hog  has 
been  especially  significant  of  the  fat  or  lard  type  of  animal, 
which  is  so  designated  because  of  the  large  amount  of  fat 
stored  in  the  finished  animal  and  the  ultimate  use  made  of 
it.  The  bacon  hog  is  so  designated  because  of  the  specific 
products  which  are  made  from  it.  Practically  the  entire 
carcass  of  the  bacon  type  of  hog  is  converted  into  products 
which  go  on  the  market  as  cured  bacon.  The  sides  are 
ultimately  cut  into  bacon  strips.  Because  of  the  use  made 
of  the  bacon  hog,  it  is  extremely  important  that  animals 
purporting  to  represent  this  type  attain  a  definite  fixed  form. 
Thin  or  half-fat  hogs  of  the  fat  type  will  not  make  high- 
class  bacon  products. 

Origin  and  Uses. — The  bacon  hog  is  characterized  by 
uniform  interspersing  of  the  fat  and  lean  tissues,  with  a 
comparatively  small  amount  placed  on  the  outside  of  the 
body.  A  thin  or  medium-conditioned  fat  type  of  hog  will 
not  produce  the  desirable  results.  The  bacon  type  is  the 
result  of  breeding  for  this  specific  purpose  and  feeding  such 
rations  that  the  quality  of  the  product  will  be  most  acceptable 
to  the  trade.    In  the  lard  hog  bacon  is  a  by-product  of  pork 


QUALITY  351 

and  lard  production.  In  the  bacon  hog  the  bacon  products 
are  of  primary  consideration,  there  being  practically  no 
by-products  as  in  the  fat  or  lard  type.  Bacon  is  obtained 
from  the  fat  type  of  hog  from  the  lower  part  of  the  side, 
between  the  shoulder  and  ham  regions.  This  is  one  specific 
product  obtained  from  the  fat  hog.  The  whole  carcass  of 
the  bacon  type  is  ultimately  placed  on  the  market  as  bacon- 
hog  products  which  thus  designates  the  specific  purpose  of 
the  animal. 

Score  Card  for  Bacon  Hogs. 

Carcass  Examination. 

Perfect  score. 

General  Appearance: 

Skin:  thin,  mellow,  smooth 5 

Form:  long,  deep  in  proportion  to  thickness 10 

Quality:  flesh,  firm,  even,  streaked  with  fat  and  lean;  back 

fat,  thin;  bone  dense 20 

Kidney  fat:  white,  firm 5 

Carcass  : 

Head:  fine,  neat,  longer  than  in  lard  hog 2 

Neck:  short,  not  heavy 3 

Shoulders:  smooth,  well  covered 10 

Sides:  long,  deep,  evenly  fleshed,  firm;  loin  heavy      ...  25 

Hams:  large,  plump,  firm;  light  covering  of  fat    ....  20 

Total     ...........    '100 

Weight. — -The  weight  of  the  bacon  type  of  hog  averages 
less  than  that  of  the  fat  type.  Animals  weighing  from  180 
to  190  pounds  are  in  greatest  demand  for  bacon-producing 
purposes.  The  bacon  type  represents  a  strictly  finished 
product  from  the  market  standpoint.  A  smaller,  unfinished 
lard  type  of  hog  should  not  be  confused  with  it.  Weight 
and  form  in  the  bacon  hog  are  of  special  significance.  Either 
over-  or  underweight  with  lack  of  proper  smoothness, 
quality,  and  finish  disqualify  an  animal  for  the  most  dis- 
criminating purposes. 

Quality. — Quality  in  the  bacon  hog  corresponds  very 
closely  in  its  attainments  to  the  most  desirable  acquisition 
of  this  characteristic  in  the  fat  animal.  In  bacon  hogs 
there  is  a  more  pronounced  individuality  of  the  correlated 
parts,  thus  emphasizing  the  clear-cut  form  and  features 
indicative  of  general  quality.    The  head  should  be  clear  cut, 


352  JUDGING  SWINE 

smooth  in  outline,  the  jowl  comparatively  small  and  trim, 
the  ears  of  medium  size,  the  neck  smooth  and  comparatively 
long,  the  shoulders  smooth  and  compact,  the  sides  long, 
smooth,  and  even,  bone  of  medium  size  and  dense,  trim 
underline,  and  a  fine,  silky  coat  of  hair.  Other  indications 
are  signified  by  the  general  refinement  in  form  and  indi- 
viduality. 

Conformation. — Compared  with  the  fat  type  of  hog,  the 
bacon  animal  is  longer,  narrower,  and  deeper  in  the  body. 


Fig.   141. — The  bacon  type  exhibited  in  a  Large  Yorkshire. 

The  head  is  cleaner  cut,  the  ears  usually  finer  and  more 
erect,  the  jowl  smaller  and  smoother,  the  neck  longer,  the 
shoulders  narrower  and  firmer,  the  sides  longer,  smoother, 
deeper,  and  more  uniform,  the  quarters  squarer,  the  thighs 
longer  and  thinner  and  the  underline  straighter,  thus  showing 
little  waste. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  the  animal  is  characterized  by  more 
quality,  cleaner-cut  features,  more  trimness  of  form,  less 
waste,  higher  station  and  straighter  feet  and  legs.  The  ribs 
are  not  as  broadly  sprung,  but  extend  lower,  thus  giving 
the  characteristic  straight,  even  sides. 


CONDITION  OR  FINISH  353 

Smoothness. — Smoothness  and  trimness  of  form  in  the 
bacon  hog  are  of  pronounced  importance.  A  rough,  coarse, 
large-jointed  animal  with  heavy  bone  or  folds  or  wrinkles 
in  the  shoulders,  sides  or  thighs  will  not  make  a  desirable 
bacon  product.  Such  animals  have  too  much  loss  in  carcass 
weight,  and  when  placed  on  the  market  the  sides  do  not 
present  the  delicate,  palatable  appearance  required.  Rough 
animals  make  rough,  coarse  sides  of  bacon  and  are  otherwise 
undesirable  in  quality  and  edibility. 

Uniformity  of  Product. — Bacon  hogs  are  produced  under 
specific  conditions  where  the  proper  kind  of  nitrogenous 
feeds  are  available.  In  Canada  bacon  hogs  are  produced 
largely  to  the  exclusion  of  the  fat  type.  Special  breeds 
and  feeds  are  utilized  in  the  production  of  a  uniform 
marketable  product.  The  first  acquisition  of  the  producer 
of  bacon  should  be  a  type  of  hog  closely  conforming  to 
the  accepted  standard  for  bacon  production.  Unless  the 
breeding  is  uniform  this  condition  cannot  be  obtained  in 
the  finished  product.  Cross-bred  animals  of  proper  type 
may  make  an  acceptable  bacon  product.  However,  indis- 
criminate breeding  should  not  be  resorted  to  in  bacon 
production.  Greater  dissimilarity  of  type  can  be  tolerated 
in  the  fat  animal  if  the  individuality  and  market  condition 
are  obtained.  The  bacon  hog  is  a  specific  product  bred  under 
uniform  conditions  of  breed,  type,  and  feed  requirements. 
Where  these  conditions  prevail  a  most  acceptable  type  of 
bacon  hog  can  be  produced.  Uniformity  of  product  can 
be  obtained  which  will  command  a  premium  on  the  market. 

Condition  or  Finish. — Condition  or  finish  in  the  bacon  type 
of  hog  is  significant  of  the  same  requirements  as  in  the 
fat  animal.  The  degree  and  character  of  condition  attained, 
however,  is  widely  different.  The  fat  animal  accumulates 
a  large  amount  of  fat,  especially  over  the  outside  body  region. 
The  bacon  hog  intersperses  the  fat  and  lean  in  so-called 
streaks  throughout  the  carcass.  The  high  finish  obtained 
in  the  fat  hog  is  not  desirable  or  even  acceptable  in  the  bacon 
animal.  There  should  be  only  a  sufficient  amount  of  fat 
accumulated  over  the  outside  of  the  body  to  give  the  sides 
smoothness,  firmness,  and  to  retain  the  succulence  and  flavor 
23 


354  JUDGING  SWINE 

of  the  product.  From  one  to  one  and  one-half  inches  of  fat 
on  the  bacon  hog  is  the  accepted  standard,  while  in  the  fat 
animal  it  may  reach  or  exceed  three  or  more  inches. 

Market  Value. — Ordinarily,  the  bacon  hog,  when  placed 
on  the  average  market,  will  not  sell  above  the  fat-hog  market. 
This  is  largely  because  the  markets  in  the  near  and  surround- 
ing country  do  not  generally  demand  this  kind  of  a  product. 
In  sections  where  bacon  production  is  specifically  followed, 
as  in  Canada  or  Ireland,  the  bacon  hog  sells  for  a  premium 
of  fifty  cents  to  one  dollar  per  cwt.  over  the  fat  type  of  animal. 

Score  Card  for  Bacon  Hogs. 

Perfect  score. 
General  Appearance — 36  Points. 

Weight:  170  to  200  pounds,  largely  the  result  of  thick  cover 

of  firm  flesh 6 

Form:  long,  level,  smooth,  deep 10 

Quality:  hair  fine;  skin  thin;  bone  fine;  firm,  even  covering 

of  flesh  without  any  soft  bunches  of  fat  or  wrinkles      .  10 

Condition:  deep,    uniform    covering    of    flesh,    especially    in 

regions  of  valuable  cuts 10 

Head  and  Neck — 6  Points. 

Snout:  fine 1 

Eyes:  full,  mild,  bright .         1 

Face:  slim 1 

Ears:  trim,  medium  size 1 

Joivl:  light,  trim 1 

Neck:  medium  length,  light 1 

Forequarters — 10  Points. 

Shoulders:  free  from  roughness,  smooth,  compact  and  same 

width  as  back  and  hindquarters 6 

Breast:  moderately  wide,  full 2 

Legs:  straight,  short,  strong,  bone  clean;  pasterns  upright; 

feet  medium  size 2 

Body — 34  Points. 

Chest:  deep,  full  girth 4 

Back:  medium  and  uniform  in  width,  smooth 8 

Sides:  long,  smooth,  level  from  beginning  of  shoulders  to 

end  of  hindquarters.     The  side  at  all  points  should  touch 

a  straight  edge  running  from  fore-  to  hindquarter    ...       10 

Rihs:  deep 2 

Belly:  trim,  firm,  thick  without  any  flabbiness  or  shrinkage 

at  flank      . 10 

Hindquarters — 14  Points. 

Hips:  smooth,  wide;  proportionate  to  rest  of  body  ...  2 
Rump:  long,  even,  straight,  rounded  toward  tail  ....  2 
Gammon:  firm,    rounded,    tapering,    fleshed    deep    and    low 

toward  hocks 8 

Legs:  straight,  short,  strong;  feet  medium  size;  bone  clean; 

pasterns  upright 2 

Total 100 


LARGE  YORKSHIRE 


355 


Bacon  Breeds. — The  bacon  breeds  from  the  American  pro- 
duction standpoint  consist  of  the  Large  Yorkshire  and  the 
Tamworth.  The  Hampshire  has  been  classed  both  as  a  fat 
and  a  bacon  hog.  It  is  of  considerable  interest  and  utility, 
both  from  market  and  show-yard  standpoint  for  both  purposes. 

Large  Yorkshire. ^The  Yorkshire  breed  of  swine  is  of  three 
distinct  types,  namely,-  the  Large,  Medium,  and  Small 
White.  The  Large  type  is  the  only  one  which  has  gained 
prominence  in  this  countr}^  The  color  is  solid  white, 
although  bluish  or  black  spots  at  times  occur  on  the  skin. 


I'lu.    142. — Lary;t_'  Yorkshire 


The  body  is  long,  comparatively  deep  and  wide.  The  head 
is  broad,  the  snout  of  medium  length  and  slightly  upturned. 
The  ears  are  medium  in  size  and  should  stand  erect,  although 
they  are  at  times  inclined  to  be  pendant.  The  neck  is  of 
moderate  length,  the  jowl  reasonably  trim,  and  the  underline 
straight.  The  width  of  the  back  conforms  to  bacon  re- 
quirements. The  sides  are  long  and  full  between  the 
shoulders  and  hips.  This  breed  ranks  as  one  of  the  largest 
in  size.  Weights  of  1000  pounds  have  been  attained,  although 
this  is  excessive.  The  Large  Yorkshire  is  very  popular  in 
bacon  production,  although  it  is  at  times  inclined  to  be 
somewhat  coarse  in  quality  and  lacking   in   general  refine- 


356  JUDGING  SWINE 

merit.  This  breed  is  quite  prevalent  in  bacon-producing 
countries,  both  in  America  and  in  its  native  home  and 
surrounding  countries.  A  weak  loin  and  too  much  length  of 
leg  are  objections  in  the  breed. 


Standard  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of  Points  for  Large 
Improved  Yorkshire  Swine. 

Points. 

General  Outline. — Long  and  deep  in  proportion  to  width,  but 
not  massive;  slightly  arched  in  the  back,  symmetrical  and 
smooth,  with   bo  ly   firmly  supported   by  well-placed   legs    of 

medium  length 5 

Outline  of  Head.— Moderate  in  length  and  size,  with  lower 
jaw  well  sprung,  and  some  dish  toward  snout,  increasing  with 

advancing  maturity 4 

Forehead  and  Poll. — Wide 1 

Jowl. — Medium,  not  carried  too  far  back,  toward  neck,  and  not 

flabby 1 

Eye. — Medium  size,  clear  and  bright .        1 

Snout. — Turning  upward  with  a  short  curve,  increasing  with  age       1 
Ear. — Medium  in  size,  standing  well  out  from  head,  nearly  erect, 

but  inclining  slightly  forward 1 

Neck. — Of  medium  length,  fair  width  and  depth,  rising  gradually 
from  poll  to  withers,  muscular,  but  not  gross,  evenly  connect- 
ing head  with  body 3 

Outline  of  Body. — Long,  deep,  and  of  medium  breadth, 
equally  wide   at   shoulder,   side    and   hams;    top   line   slightly 

arched,  underline  straight 7 

Back. — Moderately  broad,  even  in  width  from  end  to  end;  strong 

in  loin,  short  ribs  of  good  length 10 

Shoulder. — Large,  but  not  massive;  not  open  above    .      .      .      .       G 
Arm  and  Thigh. — Broad  an  1  of  medium  length  and  development       2 

Brisket. — Wide  and  on  a  level  with  underline 3 

Side. — Long,  deep,  straight  and  even  from  shoulder  to  hip     .      .       8 

Ribs. — Well  arched  and  deep 5 

Heart  Girth  and  Flank  Girth. — Good  and  about  equal     .      .       8 
Hindquarters. — Long   to   correspond   with   shoulder   and   side, 

deep  with  moderate  and  gi-adual  droop  to  tail       .....       5 
Ham. — Large,  well  let  down  on  thigh  and  twist  and  rear  outline 

somewhat  rounded 10 

Twist. — Well  down  and  meaty 1 

Tail. — Medium,  not  much  inclined  to  curl 1 

Legs. — Medium    in    length,    strong,    not    coarse,    but    standing 

straight  and  firm 5 

Hair. — Abundant,  long,  of  medium  fineness  without  any  bristles       4 
Skin. — Smooth  and  white,  without  scales,  but  dark  spots  in  skin 

do  not  disquahfy 2 

Color. — White  on  every  part 1 

Movement. — ^Active,  but  not  restless 5 

Total 100 


TAMWORTH 


357 


Tamworth. — The  Tamworth,  like  the  Large  Yorkshire  is 
one  of  the  largest  breeds.  Excessive  weights  have  been 
attained,  although  average  male  animals  will  weigh 
between  550  and  650  pounds.  The  color  is  solid  red,  the 
shades  varying  from  light  to  dark,  a  medium  color  being 
preferred.  Blackish  spots  on  the  skin  are  objectionable. 
This  breed  is  long  and  deep  compared  with  its  width.  There 
is  considerable  inclination  toward  upstanding  qualities 
although  this  is  significant  to  a  certain  extent  with  bacon 
breeds.     The  head  and  snout  are  rather  long  and  pointed, 


Fig.  143. — Tamworth  boar. 


the  face  narrow,  and  the  jowl  light  and  trim.  The  eyes  are 
large  and  bright,  the  ears  large  and  erect  or  semidrooping. 
The  shoulders  are  usually  smooth  but  of  extreme  width.  The 
back  is  slightly  arched,  the  sides  long,  smooth  and  deep  and 
the  quarters  and  thighs  moderately  developed.  The  quality 
is  very  good,  the  breed  ranking  well  in  l3acon  production. 
The  chief  objections  to  the  Tamworth  are  its  late  maturing 
qualities,  its  lack  of  width  and  high-standing  body.  The 
breed  has  never  become  generally  popular  with  American 
breeders  owing  to  the  extreme  type  as  compared  with  the 
fat  hog.  The  temperament  of  the  Tamworth  is  active, 
the  breed  on  the  whole  possessing  good  rustling  qualities. 


358  JUDGING  SWINE 

Long  legs  and  prominent  shoulders  are  other  objections  to 
the  breed. 

Standard  of  Excellence  for  Tamworth  Swine. 

Color. — Golden  red  hair  on  a  flesh-colored  skin,  free  from  black. 
Head. — Fairly  long,  snout  moderately  long  and  quite  straight,  face 

slightly  dished,  wide  between  ears. 
Ears. — Rather  large,  with  fine  fringe,  carried  rigid  and  inclined  slightly 

forward. 
Neck. — Fairly  long  and  muscular,  especially  in  boar. 
Chest. — Wide  and  deep. 
Shoulders. — Fine,  slanting,  and  well  set. 
Legs. — Strong  and  shapely,  with  plenty  of  bone,  and  set  well  outside 

body. 
Pasterns. — Strong  and  sloping. 
Feet. — Strong,  and  of  fair  size. 

Back. — Long  and  straight.  % 

Loin. — Strong  and  broad.  i 

Tail. — Set  on  high  and  well  tasselled.  1 

Sides. — Long  and  deep. 

Ribs. — Well  sprung  and  extending  well  up  to  flank. 
Belly. — Deep,  with  straight  underline. 
Flank. — Full  and  well  let  down. 

Quarters.- — Long,  wide,  and  straight  from  hip  to  tail. 
Hams. — Broad  and  full,  well  let  down  to  hocks. 
Coat. — Abundant,  long,  straight,  and  fine. 
Action. — Firm  and  free. 
Objections:   Black  hair,   very  light  or  ginger  hair,   curly  coat,  coarse 

mane,  black  spots  on  skin,  slouch  or  drooping  ears,  short  or  turned- 

up  snout,  heavy  shoulders,  wrinkled  skin,  inbent  knees,  hollowness  at 

back  of  shoulders. 

Breeding  and  Class  Characteristics. — Swine  are  judged 
from  the  breeding  standpoint  largely  on  the  same  basis  as 
the  fat  specimens.  There  are  a  few  points,  however,  of 
special  significance  well  worthy  of  consideration. 

Breeding  Requisites. — Breeding  swine  should  be  judged  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  individual  and  the  transmission  of 
desirable  breeding  attributes  to  the  offspring.  Weight 
for  age  is  important.  Hogs  are  normally  mature  at  least 
from  the  show-yard  standpoint  at  two  years  of  age.  While 
extreme  weight  is  important,  if  consistent  with  breed  and 
utility  qualifications  it  should  not  be  obtained  at  the  expense 
of  weak  bone,  impaired  constitution  and  vigor.  In  judging, 
therefore,  evidences  of  such  treatment  should  be  taken  into 
consideration.     Conformity  to  breed  type  is  important,  not 


SEX  CHARACTERISTICS 


359 


only  in  character  but  in  general  conformation,  capacity  and 
maturing  qualities.  The  form  should  be  long,  wide,"' deep 
and  otherwise  uniform,  thus  exhibiting  a  capacious,  repro- 
ductive system.  Special  attention  should  be  paid  to  breed 
type,  quality  and  bone  formation.  The  feet  and  legs  should 
be  strong,  straight,  and  the  animal  should  stand  well  up 
on  the  toes.  A  low  back,  weak  pasterns  and  small  capacity 
are  necessarily  objectionable.  All  evidences  of  constitution 
and  vitality  which  largely  determine  future  usefulness  should 
be  apparent. 


Fig.  144. — A  Chester  White  sow,  showing  the  attributes  of  a  good  breeder. 
Femininity,  smoothness,  qualitj-  and  refinement  in  evidence. 

Sex  Characteristics.— The  sex  characteristics  should  be 
strongly  developed,  the  boar  masculine,  vigorous,  and 
alert.  The  head  should  be  strong  and  broad,  the  eves 
large  and  bright,  the  jaws  square  and  broad  and  the  chest 
wide  and  deep  with  lines  conforming  to  the  hindquarters. 
The  head  as  a  whole  should  exhibit  masculine  qualities. 
The  neck  should  be  of  good  length. and  blend  smoothly  with 
the  shoulders  which  should  be  broad  and  otherwise  strongly 
developed,  although  they  should  be  smooth  and  possess 
refinement.  The  shields  should  be  well  developed,  although 
not  to  the  extent  of  causing  coarseness  of  quality. 


360  JUDGING  SWINE 

The  sow  should  possess  just  the  opposite  extreme  in  sex 
development.  Refinement  should  be  in  evidence  through- 
out, although  not  to  the  extent  of  lowering  constitution  and 
vitality.  The  head  should  possess  clear,  pleasing  lines.  The 
neck  should  be  straight,  the  shoulders  more  refined  than  in 
the  boar,  the  body  more  capacious  and  the  hindquarters 
fully  developed  from  every  angle.  Width  and  depth  of 
body  are  important.  The  chief  indications  of  usefulness 
in  the  sow  should  first  be  conformity  to  breed  type.  Re- 
finement and  general  quality,  constitution,  capacity,  strong 
feet  and  legs,  and  early  maturing  qualities  should  all  be  in 
evidence.     She  should  have  numerous  well-developed  teats. 

Feeders. — This  class  of  hogs  is  not  important  from  the 
open-market  standpoint.  Because  of  the  prevalence  of 
cholera  and  other  communicable  diseases  hogs  are  not  shipped 
to  and  from  market  as  a  usual  thing  for  feeding  purposes. 
Hogs  of  this  class  are  usually  purchased  in  the  country  and 
moved  from  farm  to  farm  rather  than  from  the  open  market 
to  the  farm.  Like  other  animals,  uniformity  of  breeding, 
a  square,  compact  form,  and  quality  are  desirable.  Hogs 
weighing  from  75  to  150  pounds  are  used  largely  for  feeding 
purposes,  the  age  and  weight  selected  depending  upon  feed 
and  market  conditions.  Barrows  constitute  the  best  animals 
for  feeding  purposes.  In  judging,  the  same  factors  should 
be  considered  as  in  other  types  and  classes,  weight,  form, 
quality,  and  indications  of  health  and  thriftiness  being  the 
main  factors  for  consideration. 

Young  Stock. — ^Young  stock,  whether  in  the  pure-bred  or 
grade  form,  should  be  judged  on  a  basis  of  their  probable 
outcome.  Indications  of  thriftiness  and  desirable  ultimate 
form  and  finish  are  the  chief  attributes  to  be  considered. 
Weight  for  age  is  important.  Quality  and  constitution 
should  be  apparent.  Further  evidences  of  good  qualities 
are  seen  in  the  general  refinement  and  symmetry  of  form, 
although  this  should  not  be  gained  at  the  expense  of  the 
other  important  utility  requirements. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
JUDGING  SHEEP. 

Purpose. — Sheep  are  maintained  for  two  distinct  purposes: 
mutton  and  wool  production.  In  judging  them  these 
qualifications  should  be  given  close  consideration.  While 
both  types  are  in  a  measure  dual  purpose  in  design,  they  are 
specifically  bred  for  one  or  the  other  of  these  products. 
The  mutton  type,  although  specifically  bred  for  mutton-pro- 
ducing purposes,  is  more  strictly  dual  purpose,  as  the  wool 
obtained  from  it  constitutes  a  large  proportion  of  the  total 
supply  of  this  product.  Although  the  aim  of  breeders 
has  been  primarily  toward  perfecting  mutton  form,  this  type 
of  sheep  has  given  a  good  account  of  itself  in  wool  products. 
The  wool  t^'pe  is  not  as  well  balanced  as  the  mutton 
type  in  the  production  of  these  two  products.  The  quality 
of  wool  is  unsurpassed,  but  the  form  of  the  animal  has  a 
low  measure  of  value  in  mutton  production.  The  mutton 
obtained  from  a  wool  sheep,  therefore,  is  essentially  a 
by-product. 

Method  of  Use. — -The  mutton  carcass  is  consumed  in  a 
fresh  condition  with  few  exceptions.  The  principal  market 
classes  of  the  fat  sheep  are  the  lamb,  yearhng,  wether,  and 
ewe.  While  sheep  are  placed  on  the  market  in  other  forms, 
the  same  as  cattle  and  swine,  these  classes  mentioned  consti- 
tute the  standard  finished  market  products. 

The  wool  obtained  from  the  sheep  either  once  or  twice 
yearly  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  various  kinds  of  woven 
or  felted  materials.  This  depends  on  the  class  and  grade  of 
the  wool,  as  described  later.  In  judging  sheep  a  careful 
estimate  should  therefore  be  made  concerning  the  value  of 
this  product  in  its  various  uses. 

Determination  of  Age. — Sheep  have  eight  incisor  teeth  in 
the  lower  jaw.     On  the  upper  jaw  a  rough  pad  or  cushion  is 

(361) 


362 


JUDGING  SHEEP 


^h    to         tV/- 


DETERMINATION  OF  AGE  363 

provided  which  serves  the  purpose  of  teeth  in  biting  and 
masticating  the  feed.  The  age  of  sheep  under  one  year  is 
easily  determined  by  the  teeth,  there  being  a  full  set  of  eight 
milk  or  temporary  incisors  after  twenty-eight  or  thirty  days. 
These  temporary  teeth  are  much  smaller  and  whiter  than 
the  permanent  set.  This  is  clearly  evident  on  the  appearance 
of  the  first  pair  of  permanent  central  incisors  which  are 
darker  in  color,  larger,  broader  and  longer. 

At  one  year  to  fifteen  months  of  age  the  two  permanent 
central  incisors  appear.  These  are  much  larger  and  stronger 
than  the  milk  teeth.  They  can  easily  be  detected  by  this 
difference.  At  eighteen  to  twenty-four  months  of  age  the 
first  intermediate  incisors  appear  and  at  two  and  one-half 
to  three  years  the  second  intermediates  appear.  At  four 
years  of  age,  or  thereabouts,  the  fourth  or  corner  pair  of 
incisors  displace  the  temporary  teeth,  when  the  sheep  has 
a  full  mouth,  and  the  age  must  thereafter  be  determined 
by  other  signs.  While  it  is  not,  frequently  necessary  to 
determine  the  age  of  sheep  after  the  four-year  stage,  it  is 
sometimes  desirable  to  do  so.  The  only  practical  way 
which  this  can  be  done  is  by  observing  the  general 
condition  of  the  animal.  As  the  age  advances  the  loin 
becomes  hollow,  the  nostrils  wide  and  the  mouth  assumes 
a  characteristic  condition  known  as  "broken  mouth." 
\Yhen  an  animal  reaches  this  stage  it  is  beyond  its  practical 
period  of  usefulness  except  in  cases  of  valuable  animals  which 
it  is  sometimes  profitable  to  maintain  by  giving  special 
attention  to  the  preparation  of  the  feed. 


EXPLANATION  OF  FIG.  145 

1— Mouth.  11 — Shoulder  base.  21— Belly. 

2— NostrUs.  12— Legs.  22— Sheath. 

3 — Eyes.  13 — Foreflanks.  23^Scrotum  or  cod. 

4 — Forehead.  14 — Heart  girth.  24 — Hindfianks. 

5— Poll.  15— Crops.  25— Thigh  or  leg  of 

6 — Ears.  16,  17 — Back  and  loin.  mutton. 

7 — Neck.  17 — Loin.  26— Twist. 

8— Throat.  18— Upper  thigh.  27— Tail  or  dock. 

9 — Brisket  or  breast.  19 — Coupling.  28 — Rump. 

10 — Shoulder  junction.  20 — Sides. 


Fig.  146. — Mutton  and  lamb  cuts.     (Courtesy  of  Illinois  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station.) 
1,  2— Saddle.  1— Leg. 

3,  4,  5 — Rack.  2 — Loin. 

1,  2,  3— Long  saddle.  3 — Short  rack. 

2,  3,  4,  5— Body.  2,  3— Back. 

4 — Breast. 
5— Chuck. 
4,  5— Stew. 


EXAMINATION  OF  FORM 


365 


Examination  of  Form. — The  examination  of  a  sheep  when 
properly  made  requires  a  different  method  of  procedure  than 
when  judging  other  animals.  The  usual  method  of  examina- 
tion may  be  employed  if  the  wool  is  removed.  However, 
most  sheep  are  judged  when  the  wool  is  intact.  This  con- 
dition requires  a  careful  sense  of  touch  and  vivid  imagina- 
tion in  order  to  picture  the  general  form  and  character  of  the 
underlying  structure.     A  sheep  with  a  full  coat  of  wool 


Fig.   147. — Determining  the  development  of  the  neck  and  over  the  shoulders. 


should  always  be  examined  cautiously,  as  the  art  of  trimming 
is  so  perfected  that  an  experienced  shepherd  can  block  out 
most  any  form  desired.  This  is  a  common  practice  in  the 
show  ring  and  experienced  judges  are  always  on  the  alert 
for  such  a  condition.  While  an  animal  need  not  be  examined 
with  the  hands  to  determine  beauty  and  general  appearance, 
it  is  very  essential  to  do  so  to  determine  the  merits  and 
imperfections  of  the  underlying  structural  form.  Each 
movement  made  by  the  person  examining  a  sheep  should 
reveal  the  true  condition  of  form  of  the  part  under  examina- 


366 


JUDGING  SHEEP 


tion.  Nothing  should  be  passed  over  until  a  true  visual 
picture  is  obtained  of  the  sheep  as  it  would  appear  with  the 
wool  removed.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  end  most 
satisfactorily  some  systematic  method  of  examination  should 
be  employed. 

Head  and  Neck. — The  examination  should  begin  at  the 
head,  first  determining  the  age  as  previously  indicated. 
The  shape  of  the  head,  its  length,  width  and  wool  covering 


Fig.   1-lS. — Determining  the  fulness  through  the  shoulders  and  chest. 


should  be  determined,  and  likewise  the  expression,  size  and 
brightness  of  the  eyes  and  the  set  of  the  ears.  While  very 
few  breeds  of  domesticated  sheep  possess  horns,  it  is  well 
to  determine  whether  there  is  any  indication  of  them  appear- 
ing. In  pure  polled  breeds  of  sheep  this  is  of  special  sig- 
nificance, as  the  appearance  of  horns,  abortive  or  otherwise, 
would  likely  indicate  impurity  in  breeding.  After  completing 
the  examination  of  the  head,  the  hands  should  be  passed 
along  the  neck  to  determine  the  form  and  condition  of 
this  part.     The  blend  of  the  neck  into  the  shoulder  should 


EXAMINATIOX  OF  FORM  367 

likewise  be  determined  by  continuing  the  hands  toward  the 
shoulder,  feeling  the  fulness  of  the  shoulder  vein  during  the 
process. 

Shoulders. — After  completing  this  part  of  the  shoulder 
examination  the  right  hand  should  be  placed  on  top  of  the 
shoulders  to  determine  the  width,  smoothness,  and  firmness. 
The  hands,  one  on  each  side  of  the  animal,  should  then  be 
passed  down  the  line  of  the  chest  or  girth  which  is  back  of  the 


^^^^^^^^^B>^   %              ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^M 

■t—is 

m  ^L 

"'"^-. 

«*-j  ' 

^p^^T^    ,-                              ^ 

Fig.   149. — Determining  the  development   through  the  lower  chest   region 
and  in  the  flanks. 

withers  and  shoulders,  this  constituting  the  junction  of  the 
forequarters  and  body  proper.  The  spring  and  depth  of  rib, 
and  fulness  of  chest  and  foreflank  should  thus  be  deter- 
mined. 

Body. — After  determining  the  size  and  fulness  of  the 
heart  girth,  the  right  hand  shoidd  be  brought  to  the  top  of  the 
shoulders,  or  slightly  back  of  them,  whence  the  left  is  passed 
to  the  floor  of  the  chest  to  determine  the  depth  of  the  animal 
in  this  part.     The  right  hand  should  then  be.  passed  along 


368 


JUDGING  SHEEP 


0^ 

M 

iSifeii^f^^T''^ 

m^p^^^^^iIIBSk 

^^5C 

1^ 

^^r     .      .""^^^B 

^jj^^.  '^^ 

^^J 

n^^ 

Fig.   150. — Determining  the  amount  of  covering,  its  distribution   and   firm- 
ness over  the  back  and  loin. 


Fig.  151. — Determining  the  width  and  thickness  of  the  loin. 


EXAMINATION  OF  FORM 


369 


the  back,  pressing  firmly  with  outstretched  palm  on  the  wool 
to  determine  the  thickness,  firmness,  and  uniformity  of  the 
flesh  and  condition  in  this  part.  After  reaching  the  region 
of  the  loin  insert  the  tips  of  the  fingers  of  each  hand  in  the 
barrel  depression  to  determine  the  width  of  the  loin.  The 
spring  of  rib  should  be  determined  by  passing  the  hands  along 
the  sides  and  on  either  side  of  the  back-bone  in  such  a  way 
that  the  true  form  will  be  revealed.     The  depth  of  the  body 


^ 

1^^^   - 

'■^mft 

tJD 

'■^^M 

1^ 

\  \f\ 

_^^IK^^^^^^^E 

^^    ^^^^       ^^S8^SWi^^^B^  '^^ 

2 

'  HTfiJ^^^^HHHBK' 

■i 

Fig.  152. — Determining  the  development  through  the  hindquarters. 

in  the  region  of  the  hindflank  should  be  determined  by  placing 
the  right  hand  at  the  hook  point  and  the  left  in  the  region 
of  the  flank. 

Hindquarters. --The  fulness  of  the  hindquarters  should  be 
determined  by  passing  the  hands  one  on  either  side  toward  the 
region  of  the  tail-head.  The  left  hand  should  then  be  placed 
at  the  region  of  the  hook  point  and  the  right  at  the  point 
of  the  buttock  to  determine  the  length  of  the  hindquarters. 
The  size  of  the  leg  of  mutton  is  determined  by  grasping  the 
leg  with  the  left  hand  on  a  level  with  the  flank  and  with  the 
24 


370 


JUDGING  SHEEP 


right  at  the  rear,  just  below  the  extremity  of  the  twist. 
The  size  and  fuhiess  of  the  leg  of  mutton  should  thus  be 
determined  by  noting  whether  the  hands  meet  in  encircling 
the  part  or  whether  there  is  an  appreciable  lack  of  so  doing. 
After  this  examination  has  been  completed  the  student 
should  be  able  to  picture  vividly  in  his  mind  an  exact  model 


Fi(..  i; 


Di-teriiiiiiing  tlic  iliMliipincnt  of  the  leg  of  mutton. 


of  the  animal  examined.  Each  animal  in  the  class  should  be 
examined  in  this  way  and  after  balancing  the  points  of  vital 
consideration  an  estimate  should  be  made  of  the  usefulness 
for  the  purpose  in  question,  whether  for  breeding,  show  or 
market. 

Fleece. — In  judging  the  fleece  it  should  be  opened  at  three 
distinct  places.     It  should  be  examined  over  the  shoulder 


MUTTON  TYPE  371 

about  midway  of  the  body  and  on  the  outside  of  the  thigh. 
The  wool  is  finest  in  the  shoulder  region,  coarsest  in  the  thigh 
region  and  medium  in  the  body  region.  The  wooling  of  the 
face,  legs,  and  belly  should  also  be  examined,  as  this  is  very 
important,  especially  in  breeding  classes.  While  not  of 
such  great  importance  in  market  animals,  close  and  uniform 
wooling  characteristics  are  desirable.  Close,  compact  wool 
is  indicative  of  good  mutton  qualities.  In  examining  the 
fleece  it  should  be  parted  at  a  natural  opening  by  pressing 
the  inner  side  of  the  hands  on  either  side  of  the  place  to  be 
opened.^  This  will  avoid  ruffling  the  wool,  which  is  very 
much  disliked  by  shepherds  and  experienced  handlers  of 
sheep.  This  examination  for  determining  the  quality  of 
the  fleece  should  be  made  at  the  same  time  that  the  animal 
is  being  examined  to  determine  the  characteristics  of  form. 
The  length,  uniformity,  density,  crimp,  quality,  and  yolk 
constitute  the  main  points  for  examination. 

Mutton  Type. — The  mutton  type  of  sheep  is  analogous 
in  form  to  the  beef  steer  or  the  fat  hog.  The  primary  object 
of  production  is  to  produce  an  edible  product.  The  nearer 
the  form  of  a  sheep  approaches  the  established  economic 
meat-producing  type,  the  more  valuable  it  becomes.  The 
essential  considerations,  therefore,  in  mutton  production  are 
involved  primarily  in  the  same  attributes  as  possessed  by 
other  meat-producing  animals. 

Weight. — The  weight  varies,  depending  upon  the  breed, 
individuality  and  condition,  the  range  in  mature  animals 
with  approved  breeding  varying  from  125  to  400  pounds 
gross.  In  market  animals  the  weight  is  likewise  dependent 
upon  breeding,  age,  and  condition.  Weight  for  age  is  the 
standard  of  determining  this  attribute.  The  Southdown  is 
the  smallest  of  the  mutton  breeds,  although  it  is  very  com- 
pact and  especially  desirable  from  the  standpoint  of  mutton 
production.  The  long-wool  breeds  which  are  represented 
by  the  Lincolns,  Leicesters,  and  Cotswolds,  and  the  Oxfords 
from  the  medium-wool  type  represent  the  other  extreme. 

Conformation. — ]Most  of  the  domesticated  breeds  of  sheep 
are  of  English  and  Scotch  origin.     Breeds  from  this  source 

'  See  Fig.  158,  page  379. 


372 


JUDGING  SHEEP 


constitute  the  principal  mutton-producing  animals.  The 
form  should  be  square,  compact,  and  the  animal  low  set. 
The  body  should  be  long,  broad  and  deep.  This  should  be 
largely  the  result  of  long,  well-sprung  ribs  closeh^  spaced, 
which  gives  width,  depth,  length,  and  compactness  of  form. 

The  head  should  be  broad  and  full,  the  neck  short  and 
compact,  blending  smoothly  into  the  shoulder.     The  shoulder 


Fig.  154. — An  ideal  type  of  Shropshire  wether. 

should  be  broad  and  smooth  over  the  top,  and  full  and  com- 
pact over  the  sides.  In  the  region  of  the  heart  the  form 
should  be  full  and  the  chest  deep.  There  should  be  no 
appreciable  depression  of  form  in  the  junction  of  the  fore- 
quarters  with  the  body  proper.  The  crops  and  flank  should 
be  full  and  smooth.  The  back  should  be  straight,  carry  out 
well  to  the  tail-head,  and  it  should  be  parallel  with  the  under- 
line.    The  ribs  should  be  w^ell  sprung,  long  and  full,  thus 


MUTTON  TYPE  373 

giving  width  and  depth  to  the  body.  The  hindquarters 
should  carry  out  square  to  the  tail-head  and  buttocks. 
Any  inclination  to  narrowness  in  this  region  is  exceptionally 
objectionable.  The  leg  of  mutton  constitutes  the  most 
valuable  part  of  the  carcass  and  development  in  this  region 
should,  therefore,  be  given  special  consideration. 

Quality. —QiiaWty  in  sheep  is  important,  the  same  as  in 
other  animals,  although  the  method  of  determination  is 
somewhat  different  from  that  used  in  horses,  cattle  and 
swine.  A  measurement  of  this  condition  cannot  be  made 
as  largely  by  the  eye  and  hand  in  sheep  as  in  other  animals. 
Quality  is  usually  in  evidence  about  the  head,  which  should 
be  clear  in  outline  and  free  from  any  indication  of  coarseness. 
Large,  drooping  ears,  a  heavy  muzzle  and  a  coarse,  open 
fleece  are  indicative  of  objectionable  quality.  The  shoulders 
should  be  smooth,  the  joints  clean  in  outline  and  the  bone 
hard  and  refined  in  appearance.  A  fleece  of  fine  quality, 
showing  density,  and  fine  hair  on  the  face,  ears  and  legs  is 
also  indicative  of  this  attribute.  The  general  demeanor 
should  all  indicate  clean,  trim  features  and  outline  of  form 
devoid  of  waste.  The  skin  should  present  a  bright,  pink, 
healthy  appearance.  A  light,  pale  skin  is  indicative  of 
general  lack  of  health  and  thriftiness. 

Constitution. — Constitution  is  of  special  significance  in 
breeding  sheep.  If  the  butcher  could  eliminate  the  parts  of 
the  sheep  indicative  of  constitution  it  would  be  a  desirable 
thing  from  his  standpoint,  as  all  of  the  readily  salable  por- 
tions are  located  in  the  loin  and  leg  of  mutton,  while  the 
head,  neck,  and  forequarters,  the  parts  which  indicate  con- 
stitution, are  comparatively  low-priced  cuts.  In  actual 
practice  the  breeder  and  feeder  have  problems  to  contend 
with  as  well  as  the  butcher.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to 
have  a  broad,  strong  head,  a  large  muzzle  and  nostrils,  and 
a  broad  and  deep  chest,  these  being  the  chief  indications  of 
constitutional  vigor.  Like  quality,  every  part  of  the  animal 
should  portray  strong  breeding  and  feeding  attributes. 
These  are  dependent  largely  on  form  and  constitution,  the 
former  indicating  possession  of  qualities  which  will  enable  the 
sheep  to  use  feed  to  good  advantage,  and  the  latter  the  con- 


374  JUDGING  SHEEP 

tinuance  of  this  process  until  the  period  of  breeding  or  feed- 
ing is  terminated.  The  general  appearance  of  the  animal  is 
quite  indicative  of  strength  and  vigor.  A  weakly  constitu- 
tioned  animal  is  portrayed  by  a  small,  pointed  head  and 
muzzle,  small,  sunken  eyes,  a  narrow,  shallow  chest,  and  a 
dull,  lifeless  fleece. 

Capacity. — ^The  attributes  of  capacity  have  been  given 
consideration  largely  under  the  description  of  form  or 
conformation.  Length  and  depth  of  body  are  important, 
as  sheep  of  this  description  develop  rapidly  during  the 
normal  growing  period  and  thereby  attain  other  important 
qualifications.  Every  part  of  the  animal  form  should  show 
capacity  for  breeding  and  feeding.  The  shallow  body  is 
very  objectionable,  as  an  animal  with  such  conformation  is 
usually  cramped  in  the  digestive  capacity  and  therefore 
cannot  use  feed  to  advantage.  Flat  ribs,  depressed  crops, 
and  a  narrow  loin  are  especially  objectionable.  Taken  as  a 
whole,  the  animal  should  show  sufficient  length,  depth 
and  symmetry  of  form  to  make,  not  only  a  strong  vigorous 
breeder,  but  a  producer  of  market  animals  conforming 
closely  to  the  standard  type  desired. 

Condition. — Condition  is  one  of  the  first  qualifications 
noticed  by  the  buyer  of  animals  fattened  for  market  purposes. 
This  is  true  because  it  is  necessary  to  mingle  muscle  and  fat 
to  give  a  carcass  a  tender,  juicy  condition.  The  extent  of 
fitting  sheep  for  market,  show  or  sale  depends  on  conditions. 
They  are  usually  fitted  to  the  extreme  for  the  show  ring  as 
custom  has  fixed  this  standard  in  bringing  out  all  there  is  in 
an  animal.  Sheep  should  be  highly  fitted  for  the  market, 
although  fitting  should  never  be  overdone,  as  a  soft,  blubbery 
carcass  is  inferior  in  quality  from  the  butcher's  standpoint. 
An  animal  fitted  to  such  a  condition  never  appears  to  the 
best  advantage  in  the  show  ring  or  on  the  market. 

An  overconditioned  animal  can  be  determined  by  noting 
whether  the  fat  has  slipped.  When  in  an  overdone  condition 
there  is  an  accumulation  of  soft  fat  either  in  the  foreflank, 
at  the  tail-head,  on  the  ribs,  or  around  the  loin.  A  sheep  in 
the  best  condition  for  the  butcher  is  smooth,  firm,  and  uniform 
in  the  fat  covering.     Any  adverse  condition   is  not  only 


MUTTON  TYPE 


375 


objectionable  but  unsatisfactory  in  securing  the  best  market 
prices.  Buyers  often  test  the  condition  by  grasping  the 
animal  with  one  hand  over  the  region  of  the  back,  loin  and 
ribs  or  at  the  dock.  A  full,  firm,  yet  springy,  even  condition 
of  these  parts  is  indicative  of  proper  finish. 

Maturity. — Sheep   are  mature   when   two    years   of   age, 
considered  from  the  standpoint  of  the  breeder.    In  mutton 


production,  broadly  speaking,  the  age  may  range  from 
that  of  the  early  lamb  to  the  yearling,  or  to  normally 
mature  animals  sold  or  discarded  from  the  breeding  herd.  In 
judging  market  animals,  maturity  from  the  purely  market 
standpoint  is  all  that  need  receive  attention,  other  condi- 
tions being  equal.  In  judging  breeding  animals,  however, 
weight  attainments  for  age  are  especially  important. 

Deception  from  Trimming.— Deception  from  trimming  is 
best  illustrated  by  examining  a  sheep  with  the  wool  under 


376 


JUDGING  SHEEP 


Fig.   156. — A  sheep  trimmed  for  show,  illustrating  how  form  can  be  improved. 
(Photograph  by  author.) 


Fig.  157. — A  sheep  with  wool  removed,  showing  natural  contour.    (Photo- 
graph by  author.) 


FLEECE  CHARACTERISTICS  377 

normal  field  conditions,  with  the  sheep  blocked  out  in  a 
square,  compact  form,  and  the  same  sheep  Avith  the  wool 
removed.  This  will  bring  out  all  of  the  possible  points  of 
deception.  It  will  be  noted  that  a  very  unsymmetrical 
sheep  from  the  structural  standpoint  may  be  made  to  appear 
as  having  an  ideal  mutton  form.  Ordinarily  the  defects 
covered  by  blocking  and  trimming  may  be  located  on  almost 
any  part  of  the  body  exclusive  of  the  legs  or  other  portions 
where  wool  does  not  normally  grow. 

Fleece  Characteristics.' — The  intrinsic  value  of  an  animal 
i?  determined  by  the  sum  total  of  all  of  its  marketable 
products.  The  sheep,  unlike  most  other  animals,  has  an 
additional  commodity  in  the  wool,  which  not  only  serves  as 
a  protection  to  the  animal,  but  which  enters  into  commerce 
as  an  important  product.  The  value  of  the  wool,  therefore, 
should  be  carefully  determined  in  connection  with  the 
mutton-producing  qualities.  Although  the  fleece  from  an 
individual  animal  is  not  normally  a  large  consideration, 
measured  in  dollars  and  cents,  it  is  oftentimes,  under  certain 
conditions,  sufficient  to  cover  the  annual  cost  of  maintenance. 
While  extreme  wool  and  mutton-producing  qualities  are 
antagonistic,  it  is  important  to  produce  as  good  a  quality  of 
wool  as  consistent  with  the  production  of  mutton  of  the 
best  quality. 

There  are  three  commonly  accepted  types  of  wool,  measured 
in  terms  of  breed  production.  These  are  namely :  fine  wools, 
medium  wools,  and  long  wools.  In  judging  fleece  character- 
istics it  is  necessary  to  take  into  consideration  the  type  of 
sheep  on  which  the  wool  is  produced.  The  flne-wool  breeds 
produce  wool  comparatively  short  and  fine  in  quality.  The 
crimp  is  close  and  the  yolk  excessive.  The  medium-wool 
breeds  produce  wool  of  average  length  and  fineness.  On 
the  best  individuals  of  these  breeds  the  wool  is  unusually 
fine  and  uniform  in  distribution.  The  long-wool  breeds 
produce  a  long  and  rather  open  fleece,  lacking  in  crimp, 
and  the  excessive  amount  of  yolk,  as  found  in  the  fine-wool 
breeds.    In  order  to  judge  these  characteristics  understand- 

'  Special  reference,  The  Wool  Grower  and  The  Wool  Trade,  by  F.  R. 
Marshall  and  L.  L.  Heller,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


378  JUDGING  SHEEP 

ingly,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  clear  idea  of  the  kind  of 
wool  produced  by  the  various  types  of  sheep.  Market 
considerations  are  also  important,  but  if  the  three  distinct 
types  of  wool  are  clearly  understood  and  their  qualities 
defined  from  the  breed-production  standpoint,  the  value  of 
the  fleece  may  be  judged  accurately  from  the  viewpoint  of 
the  stockman. 

Method  of  Examination. — In  judging  fleece  characteristics 
the  best  results  are  obtained  by  following  some  regular 
procedure  in  making  the  examination.  The  wool  covering 
of  the  head  should  first  be  noted,  after  which  it  should  be 
examined  over  the  shoulder,  mid-body,  and  outer  thigh 
respectively.  With  the  fingers  extending  straight  and  held 
close  together,  the  wool  should  first  be  opened  over  the 
shoulder.  This  should  be  done  by  parting  the  wool  at  a 
natural  opening  to  avoid  ruffling  or  matting  it.  The  finest 
wool  grows  in  this  region,  and  a  determination  of  the  quality 
in  this  part  should  not  be  taken  as  the  standard.  The  wool 
should  next  be  opened  over  the  mid-body  and  outer  thigh 
in  the  same  manner.  A  balance  of  the  fleece  characteristics 
indicated  in  these  parts  will  furnish  an  accurate  guide  to 
the  wooling  qualities  throughout. 

Before  deciding  finally  on  the  value  of  the  fleece  the 
sheep  should  be  turned  up  on  the  buttocks  and  an  examina- 
tion made  of  the  wool  covering  over  the  belly  and  on  the 
legs.  The  quantity,  quality,  length,  density,  purity,  close- 
ness of  crimp,  yolk,  and  soundness  should  all  receive  close 
consideration  in  the  general  examination.  In  making  a  final 
summary  of  the  value  of  a  mutton  sheep,  the  mutton  and 
wool  qualifications  should  both  be  taken  into  consideration. 
While  the  wool  is  a  by-product  in  the  mutton  sheep  its  value 
should  be  coordinated  with  the  mutton-producing  qualifica- 
tions. In  the  fine-wool  breeds  the  reverse  condition  is  true, 
the  wool  being  of  chief  consideration. 

Throughout  the  examination  the  fingers  should  be  extended 
and  held  closely  together  to  avoid  ruffling  the  wool.  The 
fingers  should  never  be  thrust  in  the  folds  of  the  wool  as  it 
usally  leaves  an  impression  which  it  is  difficult  to  overcome, 
especially  in  sheep  fitted  for  show.    As  in  judging  the  form 


FLEECE  CHARACTERISTICS 


379 


and  condition  of  an  animal  the  first  examination  should 
reveal  the  true  condition  and  value  of  the  fleece. 

Quality. — The  quality  of  a  fleece  is  determined  by  the  fine- 
ness of  the  fiber,  the  closeness  of  the  crimp,  and  the  softness 
or  pliability  of  the  staple. 

The  fineness  has  reference  to  the  size  of  the  fiber.  This  is 
very  closely  associated  with  the  crimp,  which  should  be 
close  and  uniform  in  contradistinction  to  the  open-spiralled 
fleece  of  the  long-wool  breeds.  A  diseased  or  ill-fed  sheep 
usually  has  a  very  objectionable  fleece  because  of  weakness 


Fig.  158. — Method  of  examiniim  ih^  character,  quality  and  condition 
of  the  flieece.  Wool  should  be  parted  at  a  natural  opening.  Fingers  should 
be  kept  close  together  to  avoid  ruffling  wool. 


of  fiber  and  irregularity  in  the  crimp.  In  a  healthy,  well- 
fed  sheep  the  crimp  is  uniform,  while  otherwise  it  is  long 
and  wavy.  An  irregular  growth  is  undesirable  because  of 
the  lack  of  uniform  fineness  and  strength  of  fiber.  If  a  sheep 
remains  in  an  unhealthy  condition  for  any  great  length  of 
time,  the  wool  retains  a  weak  place  which  usually  reduces  the 
value  very  materially.  Wool  with  a  perceptible  weakness 
goes  in  a  class  for  shorter  stapled  wools. 

In  making  an  examination  of  the  quality  of  a  fleece,  the 
fineness  and  closeness  of  crimp  should  be  carefully  deter- 
mined as  well  as  the  condition  of  the  fiber.     The  softness 


380  JUDGING  SHEEP 

or  pliability  is  readily  determined  by  pressing  on  the  fleece 
with  the  palm  of  the  hand,  fingers  extended.  If  there  is  a 
firm  yet  pliable  condition  the  wool  possesses  the  requisite  of 
softness.  If  there  is  a  dry,  harsh  touch,  the  wool  is  lacking 
in  yolk  or  oil  to  give  it  the  necessary  pliability  to  retain  a 
normal,  healthy  condition.  When  the  secretion  is  ample, 
the  scales  on  the  fibers  retain  their  close-fitting  position, 
while  if  the  secretion  is  not  sufficient  the  scales  stand  out 
and  give  the  harsh,  grating  touch  characteristic  of  a  dry, 
unhealthy  or  cotted  fleece.  A  sheep  which  is  well  fed  and 
otherwise  properly  managed  usually  exhibits  it  in  the  con- 
dition of  the  fleece  as  well  as  the  body. 

Quantity. — The  quantity  of  the  fleece  is  indicated  by  the 
length,  density,  and  uniformity  of  staple.  The  length  of 
staple  varies,  depending  on  the  breed  and  the  season  of  the 
year.  The  fleece  should  be  judged  with  these  three  factors 
in  mind.  The  long  or  coarse  wools  include  those  produced 
by  the  Lincoln,  Leicester,  and  Cotswold.  The  medium 
wools  include  those  from  the  Southdown,  Shropshire,  Hamp- 
shire, Oxford,  Suffolk,  Cheviot,  and  Dorset,  and  the  fine  or 
short  wools  those  produced  by  the  Rambouillet,  American 
and  Delaine  Merino.  Short-staple  wools  are  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  woolens  and  felts,  while  long-staple  wools 
are  adapted  to  producing  worsted  goods  made  from  strong, 
fine  yarn. 

Density  refers  to  the  closeness  or  compactness  of  the 
fibers.  If  the  fibers  are  not  close  it  depreciates  the  value  of 
the  fleece  greatly,  not  only  on  account  of  the  amount  of  wool, 
but  because  of  the  depreciation  in  quality.  An  open  fleece 
is  also  very  objectionable  because  of  the  lack  of  protection 
afforded  the  sheep.  An  open  fleece  is  often  influential  in 
causing  an  animal  to  become  diseased  through  continuous 
exposure  to  storms  and  it  is  diflEicult  to  keep  such  a  fleece 
free  from  foreign  matter. 

Uniformity  of  covering  influences  greatly  the  wool  clip. 
Sheep  which  are  bare  on  the  head,  belly  and  legs  are  very 
undesirable,  unless  it  is  with  breeds  which  are  not  naturally 
heavily  wooled  over  these  parts.  Not  only  are  these  regions 
important  but  the  uniformity  of  covering  as  well  over  the 
back,  shoulders,  sides,  and  thighs.    An  open,  spiral  condition 


FLEECE  CHARACTERISTICS  381 

about  the  thighs  or  elsewhere  is  very  objectionable,  although 
it  frequently  occurs. 

Purity. — An  examination  of  the  fleece  should  reveal  a  clean, 
pure  condition.  The  skin  should  be  of  a  healthy  pink  color 
and  from  it  the  wool  should  grow  evenly  and  without  any 
indication  of  kemp  or  dead  fibers.  The  original  sheep  was 
covered  with  a  harsh,  hair-like  covering  beneath  which  was  9, 
soft-wool  fiber.  Domestication  and  improvement  by  man 
has  eliminated  the  coarse  outer  covering  and  in  its  place  a 
uniform  covering  of  wool  has  been  bred  by  proper  selection. 
Inclination  to  revert  to  the  original  condition  should  be  dis- 
covered, as  dead,  kempy  wool  is  very  objectionable  because 
of  its  undesirable  qualities  in  the  manufacture  of  fabrics. 
Kemp  will  not  absorb  dyes  and  wherever  these  fibers  appear 
in  the  cloth  they  reduce  the  value  materially  because  of  the 
discoloration  and  the  harsh  appearance  in  the  product. 

Other  than  these  dead  fibers  of  wool,  there  should  be 
freedom  from  foreign  material  of  any  kind.  While  allowance 
should  be  made  for  judging  sheep  in  field  condition,  proper 
care  will  avert  a  large  part  of  the  dirt  and  filth  often  found 
in  the  fleeces  upon  examination.  The  introduction  of  any 
preparation  to  increase  the  oil  or  yolk  content  or  to  improve 
the  texture  or  general  appearance  of  the  fleece  is  very 
objectionable. 

Lustre. — The  lustre  of  a  fleece  refers  to  the  character  or 
glistening  appearance  of  the  fiber.  Lustrous  wools  have  a 
glistening  or  brilliant  appearance.  While  this  would  seem 
to  make  wool  harsh  it  does  not  cause  such  a  condition.  Dull 
wools  are  dead  or  lifeless  in  appearance  and  on  handling 
there  is  a  very  decided  harshness  characteristic  of  dead  or 
dry  hair.  When  held  to  the  light  there  is  no  tendency  to 
glisten.  Wools  of  this  character  are  very  much  less  valuable 
than  those  of  a  lofty,  fresh  lustrous  appearance. 

Yolk. — Yolk  is  an  oil  secreted  by  oil  glands.  This  exudes 
on  the  fibers  of  wool  and  out  to  the  extreme  outer  surface 
where  it  collects  and  in  some  breeds  forms  a  hard  crust  on 
the  coat.  This  condition  is  especially  characteristic  of  the 
fine-wool  breeds  which  have  an  unusual  amount  of  this  oil 
in  the  fleece.  _  Sheep  in  healthy  condition  should  show  a 


382 


JUDGING  SHEEP 


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MARKET  CLASSIFICATION  OF  WOOL  383 

uniform  distribution  of  yolk  throughout  the  fleece.  This  con- 
dition in  sheep  may  be  compared  to  the  much-coveted  oily 
condition  of  the  skin  and  hair  of  the  Guernsey  cow.  Only 
enough  yolk  should  be  exuded  to  keep  the  fleece  in  a  soft, 
healthy  condition.  Any  in  excess  of  this  amount  is  of  no 
use  whatever,  as  the  manufacturer  uses  only  the  scoured 
wool.  An  uneven  distribution  of  yolk  indicates  unthriftiness. 
Layers  or  flakes  of  yolk  throughout  the  fleece  show  that  the 
glands  secreting  this  fluid  are  out  of  condition.  This  is  an 
index  to  the  regularity  of  the  vital  organs  of  the  animal. 
When  such  a  condition  is  present  the  feeding  and  manage- 
ment of  the  animal  should  be  investigated,  as  invariably  it 
is  the  result  of  improper  care  or  a  generally  unhealthy  con- 
dition. 

Soundness. — Sound  wool  is  of  great  importance  to  the 
manufacturer  because  of  the  increased  value  given  to  the 
finished  product.  Unsound  wools  would  of  necessity  make 
unsound  cloth,  because  of  the  irregularity  in  the  strength 
of  the  yarn,  whether  in  woolen  or  worsted  goods.  There 
should  be  a  uniform  condition  of  strength  and  crimp  through- 
out the  fleece. 

A  diseased  condition  of  the  animal  may  cause  dead  or  weak 
places  in  the  fleece.  The  location  of  the  unsoundness  depends 
on  the  stage  of  development  of  the  fleece  when  the  disease 
appears.  The  weakness  may  be  in  the  top,  the  bottom  or 
middle  of  the  wool.  This  leads  to  the  expression  of  wools 
with  weak  tops,  weak  bottoms  or  weak  middles.  In  classi- 
fying wools,  what  would  otherwise  be  a  combing  wool  if 
sound  would  enter  into  the  class  for  clothing  wools  because 
of  the  shortness  of  fiber  made  necessary  through  dividing 
the  fiber  at  the  location  of  the  weakness. 

Market  Classification  of  Wool. — Market  wool  is  classified 
into  clothing,  delaine  and  combing  staple.  This  classification 
is  based  on  the  length,  strength  and  fineness  of  fiber,  shrink- 
age or  condition,  color  and  character.  Each  of  the  domestic 
staples  is  divided  into  various  commercial  grades. 

Clothing  Wool. — Clothing  wool  is  used  for  making  the 
highest  grades  of  woolen  cloth.  It  is  a  fine,  short  staple 
averaging  about  two  inches  in  length.     Clothing  wools  are 


384  JUDGING  SHEEP 

graded  on  their  quality  into  Picklock,  XXX,  XX,  X,  No.  1 
or  one-half  blood,  No.  2  or  three-eighths  blood,  and  No.  3 
or  quarter  blood.     Picklock  and  XXX  are  rare. 

Delaine  Wool. — Delaine  wool  is  about  three  inches  in 
length,  sound  in  staple  and  is  used  in  manufacturing  delaine 
cloth.  The  wool  is  further  graded  into  fine,  medium,  and 
low.     It  is  also  classed  under  combing  wools. 

Combing  Wool. — Combing  wool  averages  three  or  more 
inches  in  length.  It  should  be  strong  enough  to  withstand  the 
combing  process.  Such  wool  is  graded  into  half-blood,  three- 
eighths  blood,  quarter  blood,  low-quarter  blood,  and  braid. 

Variation  in  Fleece. — Each  fleece  contains  a  number  of 
distinct  grades  of  wool;  for  instance,  the  finest  wool  of  the 
fleece  is  found  over  the  heart  or  along  the  shoulders,  the 
next  finest  along  the  sides.  The  back  of  the  fleece  which  has 
been  most  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun  and  weather  is 
usually  dry  and  harsh.  The  neck,  legs,  and  lower  parts  of 
the  fleece  yield  shorter  wool,  while  the  lowest  grade  is  found 
on  the  hindquarters. 

Before  any  of  the  wool  is  actually  worked  in  the  mills 
it  is  sorted  according  to  the  grade  and  thence  used  for  the 
various  purposes  for  which  it  is  adapted.  This  emphasizes 
the  necessity  of  having  the  fleece  uniform  in  quality  and 
condition  throughout.  While  this  is  difficult  to  find  in 
the  average  sheep,  yet  the  nearer  this  condition  can  be 
approached  the  higher  the  wool  will  grade  and  the  more 
valuable  it  will  be  on  the  market.  Kemp  and  foreign  matter 
damage  the  wool  materially  and  for  this  reason  care  should 
be  exercised  in  detecting  the  condition. 

Score  Card  for  Mutton  Sheep. 
General  Appearance — 40  Points.  Perfect  score. 

Weight:  score  according  to  age 6 

Form:  long,  level,  deep,  broad,  low  set,  stylish       ....        10 
Quality:  clean  bone,  silky  hair,  fine  skin,  light  in  offal,  yield- 
ing large  percentage  of  meat 10 

Condition:  deep,  even   covering  of  firm   flesh   especially   in 
region  of  valuable  cuts.     Points  indicating  condition  or 
ripeness  are  thick  dock,  back  thickly  covered  with  flesh, 
thick  neck,  full  purse,  full,  low  flank,  plump  breast       .      .        10 
Temperament:  lymphatic,  inclined  to  fatten 4 

Carried  forward 40 


BREED  CHARACTERISTICS  385 

Perfect  score. 

Brought  forward 40 

Head  and  Neck — 6  Points. 

Muzzle:  fine,  mouth  large,  Ups  thin,  nostrils  large 

Eyes:  large,  clear,  placid 

Face:  short,  clean-cut  features 

Forehead:  broad,  full 

Ears:  fine,  erect 

Neck:  thick,  short,  throat  free  from  folds 

FOREQUARTERS — 4  PointS. 

Shoulder  Vein:  full 

Shoulder:  covered  with  flesh,  compact  on  top,  smooth 

Brisket:  projecting  forward,  breast  wide 

Legs:  straight,  short,  wide  apart,  strong;  forearm  full,  shank 
smooth  and  fine 1 

Body — 26  Points. 

Chest:  wide,  deep,  full,  indicating  constitution  ....  6 
Back:  broad,  straight,  long,  wide,  thickly  fleshed,  ribs  arched  10 
Loin:  thick,  broad,  long 10 

Hindquarters— 12  Points. 

Hips:  far  apart,  level,  smooth 2 

Rump:  long,  level,  wide  to  tail-head 3 

Thighs:  full,  deep,  wide 3 

Tivist:  plump,  deep 3 

Legs:  straight,  short,  strong;  shank  smooth,  i.ue   ....  1 

Fleece — 12  Points. 

Kind:  domestic,  territory,  carpet  or  blanket.  ' 

Class:  clothing,  delaine  or  combing. 
Grade:  fine,  medium,  or  coarse. 

Quantity:  long,  dense,  even  distribution 4 

Quality:  fine,  pure;  crimp  close,  regular,  even 4 

Condition:  bright,  sound,  clean,  soft,  light 4. 

Total       . 100 


Breed  Characteristics. — Sheep  are  classified  by  types  and 
breeds  as  follows,  the  classification  being  based  on  muttori- 
and  wool-producing  qualifications: 

Mutton. — Long  wool:  Lincoln,  Leicester  and  Cotswold. 
Medium  w^ool :  Shropshire,  Southdown,  Hampshire,  Oxford; 
Cheviot,  Dorset,  Romney,  Suffolk,  and  Tunis. 

Wool. — Fine  wool:  American  Merino,  Delaine  Merino, 
and  Rambouillet. 

They  are  further  described  in  detail  as  follows  on  a  basis 
of  type  and  breed  characteristics: 

Lincoln. — The  Lincoln  breed  of  sheep  originated  in 
Lincolnshire,  England.  It  is  among  the  largest  breeds 
produced.  The  weight  of  the  rams  varies  from  250  to  300 
25 


386 


JUDGING  SHEEP 


pounds,  the  ewes  ranging  somewhat  lighter  in  weight.  The 
color  is  pure  white,  the  wool  extending  up  to  the  poll  and 
throttle  with  a  characteristic  tuft  on  the  forehead.  The 
wool  extends  down  to  the  knees  and  hocks.  The  head 
and  legs  are  covered  with  white  hair.  The  fleece  is  long, 
moderately  fine,  considering  type,  and  hangs  in  spirals  or  locks. 
In  general  appearance  the  breed  is  massive,  some  specimens 


-Liiicijlii  ram. 


reaching  a  weight  of  400  pounds.  The  back  is  broad, 
level  and  the  flesh  reasonably  firm.  The  breed  is  polled, 
broad  between  the  eyes  and  inclined  to  be  Roman-nosed. 
It  does  not  rank  high  as  a  mutton  producer,  as  the  quality 
of  mutton  is  not  extra  and  there  is  an  excessive  amount 
of  w^aste  in  the  dressed  carcass.  The  disposition  is  docile, 
although  the  breed  is  not  the  best  suited  to  general  pro- 
duction. The  fleece  attains  an  extraordinary  length.  It 
should  not  be  less  than  eight  inches  in  length  for  one  year's 


BREED  CHARACTERISTICS  387 

growth.  In  quality  it  is  somewhat  better  than  that  of  the 
Leicester.  The  breed  ranks  fair  in  breeding  quaHties. 
For  average  conditions  it  is  too  large  and  does  not  possess 
enough  quality  either  in  the  mutton  or  wool. 


Standard  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of  Points  for  Lincoln 

Sheep. 

Points. 

Constitution. — Body  deep,  back  wide  and  straight;  wide  and 
full  in  the  thigh;  bright,  large  eyes;  skin  soft  and  of  a  pink  color       25 

Size. — ]\Iatured  rams  not  less  than  2.50  pounds  when  in  good 
condition.     ^Matured  ewes  not  less  than  200  pounds.      ...        10 

.\PPEARANCE. — Good  Carriage  and  symmetry  of  form    ....        10 

Body. — Well  proportioned,  good  bone  and  length;  broad  hind- 
quarters; legs  standing  well  apart;  breast  wide  and  deep  15 

Head. — Should  be  covered  with  wool  to  the  ears;  tuft  on  forehead; 
eyes  expressive;  ears  fair  length;  dotted  or  mottled  in  color       .        10 

Neck. — ]\Iedium  length;  good  muscle;  well  set  on  bodj'     ...  5 

Legs. — Broad  and  set  well  apart;  good  shape;  color  white,  but 
some  black  spots  do  not  disqualify;  wooled  to  the  knees  .        10 

Fleece. — Of  even  length  and  quality  over  body;  not  less  than 
eight  inches  long  for  one  year's  growth 10 

QrALiTY  OF  Wool. — Rather  fine,  long  wool;  strong,  lustrous 
fiber;  no  tendency  to  cot 5 

Total 100 

Leicester. — The  Leicester  ranks  as  one  of  the  large  breeds, 
although  it  is  the  smallest  one  belonging  to  the  long-wool 
t^-pe.  The  rams  average  in  weight  from  200  to  250  pounds, 
the  ewes  ranging  50  to  75  pounds  lighter.  The  form  is 
square,  although  inclined  to  be  somewhat  upstanding.  There 
are  two  types  of  the  breed,  the  Bakewell  and  Border  Leicester, 
however,  the  standard  of  excellence  makes  no  distinction  in 
them.  The  Bakewell  type  is  white  in  color,  large,  long 
wooled,  and  is  somewhat  long  in  the  leg.  The  head  of  the 
English  Leicester  has  a  tuft  of  wool  and  the  face  has  a 
bluish  tint,  small  black  spots  often  appearing  on  the  head 
and  ears.  The  ears  are  erect,  thin,  and  well  poised.  The 
neck  is  short,  the  body  wide  in  the  rib,  although  the 
quarters  are  inclined  to  be  rounded  and  narrow.  The 
breast  is  prominent,  thus  giving  an  unusually  square  appear- 
ance. The  breed  is  polled  and  somewhat  inclined  to  be 
Roman-nosed,    The  quality  of  the  fleece  is  good  for  a  long- 


388  JUDGING  SHEEP 

wooled  breed.  It  is  medium  in  length  and  hangs  in  spiral 
locks  over  the  body.  The  fleece  does  not  extend  beyond 
the  ears  usually  or  below  the  knees  or  hocks.  The  two 
types  of  Leicesters  are  distinguished  by  the  white  face  and 
freedom  from  wool  thereon  in  the  Border  Leicester,  and  the 
bluish-white  face  and  tuft  of  wool  on  the  head  of  the  English 
Leicester.  The  breed  is  unusually  refined  and  possesses  a 
docile  disposition.  It  is  more  popular  in  Canada  than  in 
the  United  States. 


Fig.  161. — Leicester  ram. 


Standard  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of  Points  for  Leicester 

Sheep. 

Points. 

HEAD.^Long,  moderately  small,  tapering    toward    the  muzzle; 

white  and  well  covered  with  hair;  lips  and  nostrils  black  6 

Nose. — Somewhat  narrow,  almost  straight  in  ewes,  and  slightly 

Roman  in  rams 2 

Face. — Having  a  wedge-shaped  appearance,  well  covered  with 

fine  white  hairs 2 

Carried  forward IQ 


BREED  CHARACTERISTICS  389 

Points. 

Brought  forward 10 

Ears. — Thin,  rather  long,  mobile  and  directed  backward;  a  black 

speck  on  face  and  ears  not  uncommon 2 

Eyes. — Large  and  prominent 4 

Neck.— Strong  and  moderately  short,  level  with  the  back  and 

broad  at  the  base  where  it  leaves  the  chest,  gradually  tapering 

toward  the  head,  being  fine  where  head  and  neck  join;  neck 

straight  from  chest,  showing  a  straight  line  from  rump  to  poll  6 

BRE.A.ST. — Deep,  broad  and  full 8 

Shoulders. — Upright,  wide  across  the  top,  giving  good  thickness 

through  the  heart 6 

Chest. — Well  filled  behind  the  shoulder,  with  large  girth  .  .  6 
Back. — Broad  and  well  fleshed,  ribs  well  sprung,  loins  wide,  hips 

level,  quarters  straight  and  long 12 

Barrel. — Round,  well-ribbed   home,    straight   lines    above   and 

below 10 

Legs. — Of  moderate  length,  fairly  large  and  wide  apart,  with 

strong,  fiat  bone,  covered  with  white  hair:  brown  hair  or  spots 

objectionable 6 

Flesh. — Firm,  springy  pelt;  pink  skin 8 

Fleece. — Fine,  uniform  and  sound  in  staple,  curly,  with  good, 

bright  lustre  and  no  dark  hairs  or  kemp,  belly  well  covered  .  10 
Carcass. — Rectangular,  legs  well  set  on,  hocks  straight,  pasterns 

good,  with  neat  feet,  good  general  appearance 12 

Total .      100 

Cotswold. — The  Cotswold  breed,  a  native  of  the  Cotswold 
Hills,  England,  is  of  remote  lineage.  The  breed,  ranks  with 
the  Lincoln  in  size,  rams  weighing  from  250  to  275  pounds  or 
more  in  moderate  flesh.  This  is  an  average  mutton  breed, 
the  quality  being  somewhat  inferior  and  the  percentage  of 
fat  and  offal  too  great.  The  breed  is  hornless,  and  the  face 
usually  white,  although  sometimes  spotted  with  gray  or  brown. 
The  head  is  broad  between  the  muzzle  and  eyes,  while  the 
nose  is  somewhat  Roman.  The  breed  is  alert,  having  con- 
siderable expression,  and  often  a  dignified  appearance.  The 
back  is  broad,  although  the  body  is  at  times  shallow,  making 
the  animal  appear  leggy.  The  legs  have  the  same  color 
markings  as  the  head.  The  breed  ranks  only  fair  in  mutton 
quality,  considering  type,  the  coarse  texture  of  mutton  and 
external  fat  being  criticisms  against  the  breed.  The  fleece  is 
similar  to  the  Lincoln,  hanging  in  locks  or  ringlets  over  the 
body.  The  breed  is  characterized  by  a  heav}'  forelock  of 
wool  which  hangs  over  the  face  and  eyes.    The  fleece  often 


390 


JUDGING  SHEEP 


has  extreme  length,  attaining  a  length  of  ten  inches  or  more. 
Although  considerable  improvement  has  been  effected  in  the 
weight,  symmetry,  maturing  qualities,  and  fleece  charactistics 
the  demand  for  a  smaller,  earlier  maturing  breed  of  mutton 
sheep  has  mitigated  against  the  general  introduction  of  the 
Cotswold. 


Fig.   162. — Cotswold  ewe. 


Standard  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of  Points  for   Cotswold 

Ram. 

Points. 

Head. — Not  too  fine,  moderately  small,  and  broad  between  the 
eyes  and  nostrils,  but  without  a  short,  thick  appearance,  and 
in  young  animals  well  covered  on  crown  with  long,  lustrous  wool         8 
Face. — Either  white  or  slightly  mixed  with  gray,  or  white  dappled 

with  brown 4 

Nostrils. — Wide  and  expanded,  nose  dark 1 

Eyes. — Prominent,  but  mild  looking 2 

Ears. — Broad,  long,  moderately  thin,   and  covered  with  short 
hair ^ 

Carried  forward 19 


BREED  CHARACTERISTICS  391 

Points. 

Brought  forward 19 

Collar. — Full  from  breast  and  shoulders,  tapering  gradually  all 
the  way  to  where  the  neck  and  head  join.  The  neck  should  be 
short,  thick  and  strong,  indicating  constitutional  vigor,  and  free 

from  coarse  and  loose  skin 6 

Shoulders. — Broad  and  full,  and  at  the  same  time  join  so  gradu- 
ally to  the  collar  forward  and  chine  backward  as  not  to  leave 

the  least  hollow  in  either  place        8 

Forelegs. — The  mutton  on  the  arm  or  forethigh  should  come 
quite  to  the  knee.  Leg  upright  with  heavy  bone,  being  clear 
from  superfluous  skin,  with  wool  to  fetlock,  and  may  be  mixed 

with  gray 4 

Breast. — Broad  and  well  forward,  keeping  the  legs  apart,  girth 

or  chest,  full  and  deep 10 

FoREFLANK. — Quite  full,  not  showing  hollow  behind  the  shoulder         5 
Back  and  Loin. — Broad,  flat  and  straight,  from  which  the  ribs 

must  spring  with  a  fine,  circular  arch 12 

Belly. — Straight  on  underline 3 

Quarters. — Long  and  full,  with  mutton  quite  down  to  the  hock  8 

Hock. — Should  stand  neither  in  or  out 2 

Twist. — Or  junction  inside  the  thighs,  deep,  wide  and  fuU,  which, 

with  a  broad  breast,  will  keep  the  legs  open  and  upright     .      .         5 
Fleece. — The  whole  body  should  be  covered  with  long,  lustrous 
wool      . 18 

Total 100 


Medium  Wool. — Shropshire. — The  Shropshire  is  one  of  the 
most  widely  distributed  breeds  of  sheep  in  existence.  While 
there  is  some  variation  in  type,  the  breed  possesses  certain 
well-defined  characteristics.  The  quality  of  the  Shropshire 
is  excellent,  and  when  matured  for  market  the  lambs  and 
mature  sheep  make  a  good  quality  of  lamb  and  mutton. 
The  quality  is  exhibited  very  strikingly  in  the  general 
trimness  of  the  animal.  The  bone  is  medium  in  size  and 
possesses  good  quality. 

The  size  of  the  rams  ranges  from  175  to  225  pounds,  and 
the  ewes  from  125  to  175  pounds.  The  breed  possesses  good 
constitution  and  exliibits  considerable  hardiness,  although 
there  are  other  breeds  which  surpass  it.  The  most  striking 
characteristics  are  the  head  which  is  broad,  deep  and  almost 
completely  covered  with  wool.  The  eyes  and  the  extremity 
of  the  muzzle  are  the  only  parts  which  are  not  covered 
with  wool,  although  in  some  cases  it  is  so  dense  that  the  eye- 
sight is  almost  completely  obstructed.    The  fleece  is  medium 


392 


JUDGING  SHEEP 


in  length,  compact,  and  should  extend  from  the  muzzle  ex- 
tremity well  down  to  the  hoofs  on  characteristic  animals 
of  the  breed.  The  muzzle  is  usually  dark  brown  or  black 
and  also  that  part  of  the  legs  w^hich  may  not  be  covered 
with  wool.  The  Shropshire  possesses  most  striking  breed 
characteristics.  The  breed  is  hornless,  the  ears  small,  short, 
and  should  be  covered  with  short,  fine  wool.     Large  ears  are 


Fig.   ms. — .>hroi)shirc  ram. 


objectionable.  The  Shropshire  is  a  strong-backed  breed* 
and  usually  has  good  depth  of  bod}'.  The  brisket  is  usually 
full  and  square.  The  fleece  covers  the  entire  body  uniformly 
and  exhibits  unusual  quality.  The  breed  is  early  maturing, 
the  lambs  growing  and  fattening  uniformly  at  an  early  age. 
The  mutton  and  wool  combination,  size,  quality,  and 
maturity  are  popular  with  the  numerous  advocates  of  the 
breed. 


BREED  CHARACTERISTICS  393 


Standard  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of  Points  for  Shrop- 
shire Sheep. 

Poiats. 

General  Appearance. — Attractive,  indicating  breeding  and 
quality,  with  stylish  carriage,  and  a  symmetrical  form  covered 
with  a  dense  fleece 25 

Constitution. — Robust,  as  indicated  by  width  and  depth  of  chest, 

r  strength, and  formation  of  neck,  and  by  bold,  active  movement       10 

Size. — In  breeding  condition  when  fully  matured,  rams  should 
.  weigh  not  less  than  ISO  to  225  pounds,  and  ewes  not  less  than 
125  to  170  pounds .        10 

Fleece  and  Skin. — Fleece  of  good  length,  dense,  elastic  to 
touch,  medium  fine,  free  from  black  fibre,  slightly  crimped, 
with  evenness  of  texture  throughout;  scrotum  of  rams  well 
covered  with  wool.  Skin  light  cherry  color,  free  from  dark 
spots 15 

Body. — Well  proportioned,  with  shoulders  well  placed,  fitting 
smoothly  upon  the  chest,  which  should  be  deep  and  wide,  broad 
and  straight  back,  thick  loins  well  covered  with  firm  flesh; 
hindquarters  well  finished;  twist  deep  and  full 20 

Head  and  Neck. — Head  short,  broad  between  the  ears  and  ej'es, 
bold  and  masculine  in  rams,  without  horns,  well  covered  with 
wool,  ears  short  and  erect,  eyes  bright,  color  of  face  and  ears 
.  dark  brown.  Neck  of  medium  length,  strong  and  muscular 
,  (especially  in  rams),  symmetrically  joined  to  head  and  shoul- 
]  ders.  Rams  with  horns  or  stubs  are  disqualified  as  heads  of 
•  flocks 15 

Legs. — Well  set  apart,  broad,  short,  straight,  color  dark  brown, 
and  well  wooled;  pastern  strong  and  upright 5 

Total 100 

Hampshire. — ^The  Hampshire  breed  ranks  rather  large 
in  size  and  like  the  Shropshire,  has  certain  very  marked 
breed  characteristics.  The  face  is  dark  brown  in  color, 
broad,  long,  and  the  nose  very  strikingly  Roman  in  appear- 
ance. The  legs  are  also  dark  brown  or  black  in  appearance. 
The  fleece  is  medium  in  length,  reasonably  dense,  but  not  as 
good  in  quality  as  in  the  Shropshire  or  Southdown,  lacking 
in  length,  density,  fineness  and  an  even  distribution. 

In  general  appearance,  the  Hampshire  is  a  large,  long, 
broad,  and  deep  animal.  It  is  second  to  the  Oxford  in  size. 
The  legs  are  of  medium  length,  thus  giving  the  animal  a 
fairly  low-set  appearance.  There  is  some  inclination  to 
narrowness  and  shallowness  in  the  heart  girth.  The  weight 
of  the  rams  ranges  from  200  to  250  pounds  and  the  ewes 


394 


JUDGING  SHEEP 


from  175  to  200  pounds  in  sheep  of  standard  weight.  The 
quahty  is  fair,  there  being  some  inclination  to  coarseness. 
The  breed  is  hornless,  and  ranks  well  for  crossing  on  other 
breeds  for  the  production  of  mutton.  One  of  the  principal 
points  in  favor  of  the  breed  is  the  large  size  to  which  it 
attains  early  in  life,  thus  giving  size  and  maturity  to  the 
lambs  at  a  much  younger  age  than  otherwise.     Taken  as  a 


Fig.  164. — Hampshire  ram. 


whole,  the  Hampshire  is  not  as  compact  or  as  good  in  quality 
either  in  mutton  or  fleece  as  the  Shropshire  or  Southdown. 
However  it  ranks  well  as  a  mutton  sheep,  having  a  reasonably 
wide  distribution  in  England,  America  and  other  countries. 


Standard  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of     Points  for  Hamp- 
shire Sheep. 
Detailed  Description. 
Head  and  Legs: 

Head:  moderately  large,  but  not  coarse;  well  covered  with 
wool  on  forehead  and  cheeks. 


BREED  CHARACTERISTICS  395 

Nostrils:  wide. 

Color:  (head  and  legs)  dark  brown  or  black 

Eyes:  prominent  and  lustrous. 

Ears:  moderately  long  and  thin,  and  dark  brown  or  black 

color. 
Legs:  well  under  outside  of  body,  straight,  with  good  size 

of  bone,  black. 

Neck,  Shoulders  and  Chest: 

^'eck:  A  regular  taper  from  shoulders  to  head,  without  any 

hollow  m  front  of  shoulders,  set  high  up  on  body. 
Shoulders:  sloping,  full,  and  not  higher  than  the  line  of  back 

and  neck. 
Chest:  deep  and  full  in  the  heart  place,  with  breast  prominent 

and  full. 

Body: 

Back:  straight,  with  full  spring  of  rib. 

Loin:  wide  and  straight,  without  depression  in  front  of  hips. 

Quarters:  long  from  hips  to  rump,  without  sloping,  and  deep 

in  thigh.     Broad  in  hips  and  rump,  with  full  hams.     Inside 

of  thigh  full. 

Scale  of  Poixts: 

.  Points. 

Head:  size  and  shape,  5;  ears  and  eyes,  3;  color,  5;  legs  and 

feet,  2  • *  25 

Neck:  shoulders  and  breast— neck,  5;  'shoulders,'  10:  chest 

and  breast,  15 3q 

Body:  back  and  loins,  15;  rib,  5  .      .      .  oq 

Quarters:  length,  10;  width,  10;  twist,  5      ..'"''      '  95 

Tl  ool:  forehead  and  cheeks,  2;  belly,  well  covered,  3;  quality,  5  10 


Total 


100 


Southdown.  —  The  Southdown  is  the  smallest  of  the 
middle  wool  breeds  of  sheep.  The  weight  of  rams  ranges 
from  150  to  175  pounds  and  ewes  from  130  to  140  pounds. 
From  the  standpoint  of  form  and  quality,  the  breed  is 
almost  ideal.  The  animal  is  straight  in  its  lines,  squarely 
built,  and  compact  throughout.  The  latter  attribute  is 
one  of  the  most  desirable  qualities  of  the  breed.  The  bone 
IS  fine,  the  fat  not  excessive  and  the  flesh  of  the  finest  flavor. 
The  color  of  the  face  and  legs  is  of  a  rich  grayish  brown.  The 
fleece  extends  over  the  poll  and  forehead,  up  to  the  eyes  and 
to  the  extremity  of  the  lower  jaws.  On  the  legs  it  extends 
well  below  the  knees  and  hocks.  The  fleece  is  of  medium 
length,  fine  in  quality,  very  dense  and  has  a  close  crimp  for 


396 


JUDGING  SHEEP 


a  medium  wool  breed.     The  fleece  is  short,  however,  and 
lacking  in  yolk. 

The  breed  is  hornless,  the  head  broad,  the  ears  rather  small 
and  neatly  set,  the  eyes  bright,  the  muzzle  large  and  the 
nostrils  open.  The  neck  is  short  and  compact,  the  shoulders 
smooth,  and  the  crops  full.  The  body  of  the  animal  is  very 
nearly  ideal  from  the  mutton  standpoint,  it  having  the 
desired  length,  width,  squareness  and  fulness  of  body,  back 


Fig.   165. — Southdown  ram. 


and  loin.  The  leg  of  mutton  is  w^ell  developed,  having 
quality  and  compactness.  The  constitution  is  quite  well 
developed  as  indicated  by  the  rather  large  muzzle  and 
nostril  and  the  broad,  deep  chest.  The  legs  are  of  medium 
length,  the  bone  of  medium  size  and  fine  quality.  The  con- 
formation of  the  Southdown  meets  the  demands  of  the 
butcher  in  compactness  and  quality.  The  breed  lacks  size, 
however,  and  may  be  criticised  somewhat  from  this  stand- 
point, as  well  as  having  a  light  fleece. 


BREED  CHARACTERISTICS  397 

Standard  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of  Points  for  South- 
down Sheep. 

Points. 

Head. — Medium  in  size  and  hornless,  fine,  carried  well  up,  the 

forehead  or  face  well  covered  with  wool,  especially  between  the 

ears  and  on  the  cheeks,  and  in  the  ewe  slightly  dished    ...         5 

Lips  and  Under  Jaw. — ^Fine  and  thin 1 

Ears. — Rather  small,   tolerably  wide  apart,   covered  with  fine 

hair,  and  carried  with  a  lively  back-and-forth  movement     .      .         2 

Eyes. — Full  and  bright 3 

Face. — A  uniform  tint  of  brown,  or  gray,  or  mouse  color  3 

Neck. — Short,  fine  at  the  head,  but  nicely  tapering,  and  broad 

and  straight  on  top  at  the  shoulders 4 

Shoulders. — Broad  and  full,  smoothly  joining  the  neck  with  the 

back 5 

Breast. — Wide,  deep  and  projecting  well  forward,  the  forelegs 

standing  wide  apart 5 

Back. — Back  and  loin  broad  and  straight  from  shoulders  to  rump         7 
Ribs. — Well  arched,  extending  far  backward,  the  last  projecting 

more  than  the  others ,6 

Rump. — Broad,  square  and  full,  with  tail  well  set  up    ...      .  6^ 

Hips. — Wide,  with  little  space  between  them  and  last  ribs  6 

Thighs. — Full  and  well  let  down  in  twist,  the  legs  standing  well 

apart 6 

Limbs. — Short  and  fine  in  bone,  and  in  color  to  agree  with  the 

face 3 

Forelegs. — Well  wooled  and  carrying  mutton  to  the  knees,  but 

free  from  meat  below 2 

Htndlegs. — Well  filled  with  mutton  and  wooled  to  the  hocks, 

neat  and  clean  below 2 

Belly. — Straight  and  covered  with  wool,  the  flank  extending  so 

as  to  form  a  line  parallel  with  the  back  or  top  line  ....  5 
Fleece. — Compact,  the  whole  body  well  covered  with  moderately 

long  and  close  wool,  white  in  color,  carrying  some  yolk  ...  12 
Form.— Throughout  smooth  and  symmetrical,  with  no  coarseness 

in  any  part 9 

General  Appearance. — Spirited  and  attractive,  with  a  deter- 
ined  look,  a  proud  and  firm  step,  indicating  constitutional 
'igor  and  thorough  breeding 8 

Total 100 

Oxford. — The  Oxford,  which  is  a  derivative  of  a  Hamp- 
'shire-Cotswold  cross,  is  the  largest  of  the  medium  wool 
breeds  of  sheep.  In  some  respects  it  resembles  the  Shrop- 
shire and  Hampshire  breeds,  although  it  is  larger  in  size. 
The  breed  is  somewhat  variable  in  this  respect,  standard 
rams  of  the  breed  weighing  from  250  to  350  pounds  and 
ewes  from  180  to  275.  The  constitution  of  the  Oxford  is 
well  developed,  as  indicated  by  the  broad,  deep  chest  which 


398 


JUDGING  SHEEP 


extends  well  forward,  thus  giving  a  large  chest  capacity.  The 
frame  is  large,  which  provides  for  the  extraordinary  size  to 
which  the  breed  develops.  The  animal  is  long  in  body,  deep, 
broad,  and  square  over  the  back. 

The  head  is  large  and  somewhat  inclined  to  be  plain, 
although  not  to  a  serious  extent.  The  forehead  is  broad, 
the  jaws  deep  and  the  muzzle  large  and  characterized  by 


Fig.  166. — Oxford  ram. 


open  nostrils.  The  neck  is  full,  broad,  and  compact,  the 
shoulders  smoothly  developed  and  the  chest  girth  square  and 
full.  The  leg  of  mutton  is  large,  although  it  does  not  possess 
the  quality  of  some  of  the  smaller  breeds.  The  fleece  covers 
the  entire  animal,  with  the  exception  of  the  face,  cheeks, 
muzzle  extremity,  and  frequently  the  legs  from  the  knees 
and  hocks  down.  The  face  and  legs  are  uniformly  brown 
in  color.  The  fleece  of  this  breed  is  rather  coarse  and  open. 
It  is  ordinarily  classed  as   the  longest  and   coarsest  fleece 


BREED  CHARACTERISTICS  399 

grown  by  the  Down  breeds.  The  skin  of  the  Oxford  is  not 
as  desirable  as  it  should  be,  there  being  some  tendency  to 
a  bluish  tinge  which  is  an  objectionable  feature  in  any  breed. 
The  Oxford  is  prolific  and  meets  with  most  favor  on  level 
or  rolling  lands. 

Staxdard  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of  Points  for  Oxford 
Down  Sheep. 

Breed  Type — 30  Points. 

Form:  Of  a  good  general  appearance,  made  bj-  a  well-balanced 
conformation,  free  from  coarseness  in  any"  part,  and  show- 
ing good  style  both  at  rest  and  in  motion 15 

Head:  Of  moderate  length  and  width  between  the  ears  and 
between  the  eyes,  and  well  covered  with  wool  over  poll  and 

down  to  the  eyes.    Color  of  face  an  even  dark  gi-ay  or  bro^-n. 

either  with  or  without  gray  spot  on  tip  of  nose        .      .  6 

Rams:  When  fully  matured  and    in  good  condition    rams] 

should  weigh  250  to  350  pounds.  I 

Ewes:  When  fully  matured    and    in    good    condition  ewesf         ^ 

should  weigh  ISO  to  275  pounds J 

Ears:  Medium  size,  not  too  thick  and  of  an  even  brown  or 

dark  graj-  color 2 

Legs:  Short,  strong  in  bone,  flat  and  of  even  dark  grav  or 

bro^-n  color,  placed  squarely  under  the  bodv  and  well  apart         2 
Constitution — 25  Points. 

Heart  Girth:  Large  and  wide  and  full  in  the  chest       ...        10 

Movement:  Must  be  bold  and  vigorous 5 

Eyes:  Bold,  prominent  and  bright 4 

Skin:  Bright  pink  in  color 3 

Neck:  Strong  and  muscular  in  rams  and  well  set  on  in  both 

sexes 3 

Mutton  Form  and  Quality — 30  Points. 

Shoulders,  Back,  Loin,  and  Rump:  Wide  and  straight  on  top 

from  base  of  neck  to  tail 15 

Shoulders  and  Thighs:  Full  and  well  meated  both  inside  and 

outside 5 

Flanks:  Well  filled  and  strong  so  as  to  make  the  lower  lines 

of  the  body  as  straight  as  possible,  and  side  lines  straight 

or  rather  full 4 

Carcass:  Evenly  covered  with  good,  well-marbled  meat  .      .         6 
^  OOL — 15  Points. 

Fleece:  Of  moderate  length,  close  and  of  even  quality,  cover- 
ing the  whole  carcass,  well  and  free  from  black  patches 

upon  the  body,  neck  or  head 15 

Total 100 

Cheviot. — The  Cheviot  is  a  very  characteristic  breed.    Its 
stylish  form  and  sprightly  movements  are  noticeable  bv  anv 


400 


JUDGING  SHEEP 


casual  observer.  The  breed  is  medium  in  size,  rams  weigh- 
ing 200  pounds  on  the  average,  and  ewes  from  140  to  150 
pounds.  The  head  is  usually  hornless  and  devoid  of  wool, 
the  latter  extending  to  the  base  of  the  ears  and  the  throttle. 
The  legs  are  bare  of  wool  below  the  knees  and  hocks,  the 
head  and  legs  usually  having  a  white  color.  The  fleece  is 
more  than  average  in  length,  and  is  very  uniformly  dis- 
tributed over  the  body.  It  is  not  as  dense  as  in  other  medium 
wool  breeds,  the  openness  of  fleece  being  objectionable. 


Fig.   167. — Cheviot  ram  and  ewe. 


The  head  of  the  Cheviot  is  rather  broad,  the  muzzle  large 
and  the  nose  slightly  Roman.  The  ears  are  free  from  wool, 
of  medium  size,  rather  pointed  and  slightly  erect.  The  neck 
is  short,  broad,  and  deep  and  has  a  rather  characteristic  crest 
formed  partly  by  the  conformation  of  the  neck  and  shoulder 
and  otherwise  by  the  fleece.  The  body  of  the  Cheviot  is  deep, 
the  legs  rather  short,  thus  giving  the  animal  a  characteristic 
low-set  appearance.  The  shoulders  and  body  are  not  as 
broad  as  in  the  Shropshire  and  usually  not  as  smooth  and 
compact.     The  ribs  extend  well  down,  thus  giving  a  charac- 


BREED  CHARACTERISTICS  401 

teristic  depth  of  body.  Mutton  from  this  breed  ranks  high, 
because  of  superior  quahty  and  minimum  of  waste  fat.  The 
constitution  is  quite  remarkably  developed,  as  indicated  by 
the  depth  of  body  and  the  forward  extension  of  the  brisket. 
The  breed,  as  a  whole,  is  rarely  surpassed  in  rustling  quali- 
ties. In  some  cases  the  rams  have  horns,  although  this  is 
rare.  Characteristic  animals  of  this  breed  have  a  very  alert, 
stylish,  and  distinctive  appearance.  The  principal  objections 
to  them  are  lack  of  compactness  and  thin,  light,  open  fleeces. 

Standard  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of  Points  for  Cheviot 

Sheep. 

Points. 

General  Conformation  and  Quality. — Deep  and  full  breast 
and  large  through  chest.  Back  wide  and  straight,  with  well- 
sprung,  deep  ribs,  legs  well  placed  and  leg  of  mutton  full  and 
thick.  Bod}'  well  fleshed,  skin  pink  with  no  blue  or  dark  color- 
ing, fleece  compact  and  medium  fine,  bone  strong  and  fine,  gen- 
eral appearance  graceful,  symmetrical,  active 20 

Size. — In  good  flesh  when  fully  matured  a  twenty-four- months- 
old  ram  should  weigh  not  less  than  225  pounds,  and  a  ewe  not 
less  than  150  pounds 10 

Head. — Should  be  medium  short  and  broad  with  ample  breadth 
between  the  eyes.  Ears  should  be  of  medium  length  and 
usually  erect  when  at  repose.  Head  covered  with  clear  white 
hairs,  extending  from  nostrils  to  back  of  poll.  Ridge  of  head 
from  between  eyes  to  nostrils  straight  or  slightly  arched  with 
females  and  more  strongly  arched  or  Roman  with  rams.  Color 
of  tip  of  nose  black 15 

Body. — Well  proportioned,  having  notable  depth,  with  thickness 
on  top  and  at  flanks.  Loins  should  be  very  broad  and  thick, 
shoulders  should  set  well  back  and  be  smoothly  covered,  and 
crops  be  full  and  well  arched.  The  rump  should  be  long,  broad 
and  level 20 

Legs. — Should  be  short,  well  set  apart  and  be  covered  with  clean 
white  hair,  with  no  wool  below  hocks  and  knees.     The  hind 
legs  should  be  flat  and  deep  below  hocks.     Pasterns  should  be 
strong  and  not  show  weakness,  supporting  the  body  well     .      .        10 

Feet. — Symmetrical,  squarely  placed  when  in  repose  and  hoofs 
black  in  color 5 

Fleece. — Should  cover  the  body  completely  to  behind  the  poll 
and  ears  and  down  to  knees  and  hocks.  Under  part  of  the  body 
should  be  well  covered.  In  mature  animals  should  be  not  less 
than  three  inches  long  for  annual  growth  and  be  compact  and 
of  medium  wool  class.  Rams  should  shear  at  least  12  pounds 
and  ewes  8  when  in  mature  form  to  be  desirable  representatives 
of  the  breed 20 

Total 100 

26 


402 


JUDGING  SHEEP 


Objections. — Scurs  on  the  head,  black  spots  on  the  head,  flesh- 
colored  or  spotted  skin  about  the  nostrils,  hair  about  the  thighs 
or  kemp  on  the  body,  reddish  or  sandy  hair  on  head  or  legs,  lack 
of  wool  on  under  part  of  body. 

Disqualifications. — All  male  lambs  shall  be  inehgible  to  registra- 
tion if  having  scurs  or  horns  exceeding  one  inch  in  length. 

Dorset  Horn. — The  Dorset  Horn  breed,  as  the  name 
implies,  is  one  of  the  few  domesticated  breeds  of  sheep 
which  possesses  horns.    In  the  rams  the  horns  have  a  very 


Fig.  168.— Dorset  Horn  ram. 


characteristic  spiral  form.  They  are  large  at  the  base, 
extend  slightly  outward  from  the  head,  then  backward 
and  curve  forward.  The  face  and  legs  of  the  breed  are  white. 
The  fleece  extends  to  the  base  of  the  lower  jaw  and  the  under 
side  of  it,  extending  in  a  circle  around  the  eyes  and  over  the 
poll  and  forehead.  The  fleece  is  medium  in  length  and  fine- 
ness. It  extends  to  the  knees  and  hocks,  the  remaining  por- 
tion of  the  legs  being  white.    The  fleece  is  usually  too  short, 


BREED  CHARACTERISTICS  403 

and  not  well  distributed.     The  underside  of  the  body  and 
legs  is  often  scantily  covered  with  wool. 

The  size  of  the  breed  ranges  from  200  to  225  pounds  in  the 
rams  and  from  150  to  175  in  the  ewes.  The  form  of  the 
Dorset  Horn  is  somewhat  inclined  to  be  rangy,  the  ribs 
flat  and  the  back  low.  The  body  has  not  as  much  scale 
and  compactness  as  desirable  for  a  typical  mutton  sheep. 
The  Dorset  Horn  is  an  exceptionally  good  breeder,  the  ewes 
making  excellent  mothers,  often  breeding  twice  yearly.  The 
quality  of  the  lamb  and  mutton  is  above  the  average.  The 
constitution  is  very  well  developed,  although  there  is  some 
tendency  to  shallowness  of  chest.  Lack  of  mutton  form 
and  even  distribution  of  fleece  are  criticisms  of  the  breed. 


Standard  of  Excellence  and     Scale  of  Points  for  Dorset 

Sheep. 

Points. 

Head. — Neat,  face  white,  nostrils  large,  well  covered  on  crown 

and  under  jaw  with  wool 5 

Horns. — Small  and  gracefully  curving  forward,  rather  close  to 

jaw 5 

Eyes. — Prominent  and  bright 2 

Ears. — Medium  size,  covered  with  short  white  hair     ....  2 

Neck. — Short,  symmetrical,  strongly  set  on  shoulders,  gradually 

tapering  to  junction  of  head 5 

Shoulders. — Broad  and  full,   joining  neck  forward  and  chine 

backward  with  no  depression  at  either  point  (important)  .  .  15 
Brisket. — Wide  and  full,  forward,  chest  full  and  deep       ...  8 

Foreflank.  —  Quite    full,     showing    little    depression     behind 

shoulder S 

Back  and  Loin. — Wide  and  straight,   from  which  ribs  should 

spring  with  a  fine,  circular  arch 10 

Quarters. — Wide  and  full,   with  mutton   extending  down  to 

hocks 10 

Belly. — Straight  on  under  line 3 

Fleece. — Medium  grade,  of  even  quaUty  presenting  a  smooth 

surface  and  extending  over  belly  and  well  down  on  legs  .        12 

General  Conformation. — Of  the  mutton  type,  body  moderately 

long;  short,  stout  legs,  placed  squarely  under  body,  sldn  pink, 

appearance  attractive 15 

Total 100 

Romney. — The  Romney  breed  is  a  native  of  Kent  county, 
England.  The  breed  is  comparatively  new  and  untried  in 
America.     The  head  and  legs  are  white,  the  wool  extending 


404 


JUDGING  SHEEP 


down  to  the  knees  and  hocks  and  up  to  the  extremity  of  the 
jaws,  reaching  over  the  poll  and  terminating  in  a  tuft  on 
the  forehead.  It  is  fair  in  mutton  production,  the  back 
being  broad  and  the  body  very  compact  in  form.  The  early 
type  of  the  breed  was  small,  fiat-ribbed  and  late  in  maturing 
qualities.  The  modern  type  is  more  refined  and  compact 
and  has  better  fattening  propensities.  The  back  is  broad, 
long  and  the  quarters  are  well  developed.  The  breed  is 
hornless.     It  is  claimed  it  is  free  from  foot-rot,  but  this 


Fig.  169. — Romney  ram.    (Courtesy  of  Messrs.  Hickman  and  Kent,  Sciuby, 

England.) 

may  be  somewhat  exaggerated.  The  breed  is  adapted  to 
low-lying  lands,  although  it  is  not  likely  that  it  is  entirely 
immune  from  this  disease,  peculiar  to  sheep  when  main- 
tained on  low  lands.  The  quality  of  the  breed  is  fair  in  mut- 
ton and  wool.  There  is  some  inclination  to  coarseness  of  bone 
and  open  fleece  characteristics,  an  average  fleece  weighing 
about  eight  pounds.  The  breed  has  considerable  merit  and 
has  met  with  favor  in  Australia  and  some  of  the  British 


BREED  CHARACTERISTICS 


405 


colonies.  It  is  not  important  in  this  country,  although  it 
is  well  worthy  of  consideration  both  from  a  utility  and 
authoritative  standpoint. 

Suffolk. — The  Suffolk  breed  is  not  widely  distributed  in 
this  country.  It  resembles  the  Hampshire  Down  in  many 
respects,  the  face  and  legs  being  either  black  or  a  very  dark 
brown.  The  breed  is  polled,  the  wool  extending  from  the 
back  of  the  ears  and  the  lower  extremity  of  the  jaws  down 


Fig.   170.— Suffolk  ram. 


to  the  knees  and  hocks.  Specimens  of  the  breed  are  about 
equal  to  the  Hampshire  in  size,  rams  weighing  from  200 
to  250  pounds,  the  ewes  ranging  about  50  pounds  lighter. 
The  Suffolk  is  a  strongly  constitutioned  breed  and  it  is  said 
that  they  are  immune  from  foot-rot.  The  ears  are  medium 
to  large  in  size  and  are  covered  with  a  fine  coat  of  soft 
hair.  The  head  is  rather  broad,  the  neck  moderately  long, 
and  the  chest  broad  and  full.    On  the  whole,  specimens  of 


406  JUDGING  SHEEP 

the  breed  are  inclined  to  be  rangy.  However,  it  has  a 
well-sprung  rib.  The  fleece  is  moderate  in  length,  and  reason- 
ably dense  and  fine  in  quality.  The  rather  distinct  black 
covering  of  the  head  and  legs  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  breed. 
As  a  mutton  breed  it  ranks  well,  possessing  fat  and  lean-pro- 
ducing attributes  which  are  especially  favorable  to  lamb  and 
mutton  production.     The  constitution  is  well  developed,  as 


Fig.   171. — Tunis  ram. 

indicated  by  the  strong  chest  development.     The  breed  is 
especially  suited  to  low  or  rolling  lands. 

Tunis. — The  Tunis  breed  is  not  widely  distributed  in 
America.  The  origin  is  unknown;  however,  it  has  existed 
in  Tunis  for  several  centuries.  The  breed  is  polled  generally 
and  characterized  b}"  a  brownish  color  about  the  face  and 
legs,  the  head  being  bare  of  wool  from  the  forehead  down 
and  likewise  the  legs  below  the  knees  and  hocks.  The  fleece 
is  quite  fine  in  quality,  fairly  compact,  and  averages  about 
three  to  four  inches  in  length.    The  color  varies  consider- 


WOOL  TYPE  407 

ably.  In  some  specimens  the  color  of  the  fleece  is  white, 
while  in  others  there  is  a  reddish  cast,  and  in  still  others, 
reddish  fibers  intermixed  with  the  white. 

The  breed  is  rather  small  in  size,  the  weight  ranging  from 
140  to  160  pounds  in  rams  and  from  125  to  130  pounds 
in  the  ewes.  The  form  is  inclined  to  be  rangy,  the  type 
not  being  expecially  well  fixed  in  the  breed.  The  head  is 
rather  long  and  inclined  to  be  narrow,  the  ears  large  and 
the  neck  long  and  not  compactly  developed.  The  breed  is 
fairly  low  set,  although  there  is  some  tendency  to  extreme 
length  of  leg.  The  body  possesses  very  good  depth,  however; 
it  is  inclined  to  be  narrow  and  lacking  in  the  spring  of  rib. 
One  of  the  characteristic  features  of  this  breed  is  the  broad 
tail,  which  often  measures  four  to  five  inches  in  width.  It 
is  thick  and  moderately  long,  the  fleshy  part  extending 
down  six  to  eight  inches  at  maturit}^  The  principal  objec- 
tions to  the  breed  are  its  lack  of  size  and  uniformity  in  type. 
There  is  considerable  opportunity- for  improvement  in  the 
breed,  especially  in  these  twt>^spects. 


WOOL  TYPE. 

Wool  sheep-^e  produced  primarily  for  the  fleece.  In 
former  years  the  variation  in  the  mutton  and  wool  type  was 
greater  than  it  is  at  present.  Economic  conditions  have 
so  changed  that  the  breeders  of  strictly  wool  sheep  are  now 
giving  more  attention  to  the  form  or  mutton-producing 
qualities.  The  fine-wool  breeds  w^ere  bred  so  carefully  in 
wool-producing  qualities  that  the  weight  of  the  fleece  not 
only  formed  an  unusually  large  proportion  of  the  total 
weight,  but  the  constitutional  development  was  thereby 
injured.  The  increase  in  the  price  of  beef  and  other  meat- 
producing  animals  has  had  a  beneficial  effect  on  the  produc- 
tion of  more  and  better  sheep.  It  is  also  significant  that  the 
fluctuation  in  the  price  of  fine  wool,  due  to  several  conditions, 
has  caused  the  fine-wool  breeders  to  place  more  stress  on 
mutton-producing  qualities. 

Conformation. — Compared  with  the  mutton  sheep,  the 
wool  type  is  smaller,  longer  in  the  leg,  less  symmetrical, 


408 


JUDGING  SHEEP 


flatter  in  the  ribs  and  not  as  heavily  or  uniformly  covered  with 
natural  flesh.  The  type  is  wooled,  however,  practically  from 
head  to  foot.  The  head  is  usually  so  densely  covered  with 
w^ool  that  the  animal  sees  with  difiiculty.  It  is  wooled  to  the 
extremity  of  the  muzzle,  over  the  belly,  in  the  arm  pits  and 
down  to  the  pasterns.  Some  of  the  breeds  of  this  type  are  ex- 
cessively wrinkled,  thus  giving  a  maximum  area  on  which 
wool  may  be  grown. 


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172. 


-Wool  type  of  sheep. 


The  modern  type  of  fine-wool  sheep  is  more  symmetrical, 
less  angular  and  smoother  in  form  than  formerly.  This  has 
been  brought  about  largely  by  the  desire  to  obtain  better 
mutton-producing  qualities.  Attention  has  been  given  to 
breeding  out  the  folds  and  wrinkles,  thus  materially  improving 
the  mutton  form.  Even  wdth  these  improvements  the  wool 
sheep  does  not  possess  the  thickness,  smoothness  and  uni- 
formity of  natural  flesh  of  the  mutton  type.  In  judging 
this  type  of  sheep  mutton-producing  qualities  should  be 
emphasized  consistently  with  the  wool-producing  attributes, 
which  are  of  primary  consideration. 


WOOL  TYPE  409 

Quality. — The  wool  type  of  sheep  possesses  an  unusual 
degree  of  refinement.  This  is  natural,  however,  considering 
the  purpose  of  the  animal.  Naturally  an  animal  producing 
a  fine  quality  of  wool  would  show  correlated  characteristics 
in  other  respects.  While  smaller,  more  angular,  and  less 
symmetrical  than  the  mutton  type,  these  animals  possess 
unusual  quality.^  The  head  is  clear  cut,  the  bone  fine,  the 
skin  soft  and  pink,  and  the  hair  of  fine  quality  where  it 
appears  on  the  animal. 

A  close  examination  of  the  fleece  on  a  fine-wool  sheep 
will  indicate  the  possession  of  these  attributes.  The  close- 
crimp,  soft,  compact  nature  of  the  fleece  is  indicative  of 
correlated  qualities  otherwise.  Other  than  the  points  men- 
tioned the  wool  sheep  is  judged  largely  the  same  as  the 
mutton  animal.  The  fleece  should  be  given  first  considera- 
tion, mutton-producing  qualities  being  secondary. 

Fleece  Characteristics. — The  fleece  of  the  fine-wool  breeds 
is  shorter,  finer  and  denser  than  the  wool  grown  on  any  other 
breed.  The  term  fine  wool  is  significant  of  quality  as  related 
to  fineness.  As  extreme  length  and  fineness  are  antagonistic, 
the  fleece  on  the  fine-wool  breeds  is  comparatively  short. 
The  staple  usually  ranges  from  two  to  three  inches  in  length 
having  a  close  crimp  and  being  very  dense,  meaning  tech- 
nically a  large  number  of  fibers  per  square  inch.  It  contains 
an  excessive  amount  of  yolk,  scoured  wool  often  shrinking 
as  much  as  60  per  cent,  or  more  of  its  original  weight. 

The  fleece  of  the  fine-wool  breeds  completely  covers  the 
body  from  the  muzzle  extremity  to  the  pasterns.  Absence 
of  wool  over  any  part  is  seriously  objectionable.  The  area 
or  surface  for  producing  wool  has  been  materially  increased 
by  the  development  of  the  folds  or  wrinkles  over  the  body. 
These  folds  are  excessively  developed  in  the  American 
Merino,  less  so  in  the  Delaine,  with  the  fewest  number 
appearing  in  the  Rambouillet.  The  fineness  and  density 
of  the  fleece  ranks  in  the  same  order,  the  American  Merino 
producing  the  finest  and  the  Rambouillet  the  coarsest  wool 
of  the  three  breeds. 

_  In  judging  fine  wools,  the  length,  crimp,  density,  distribu- 
tion, lustre,  soundness  and  condition  should  all  be  carefully 


410  JUDGING  SHEEP 

considered.  The  amount  of  yolk  is  also  important,  as  an 
even  distribution  through  the  fleece  indicates  that  the  animal 
is  in  a  healthy  condition  and  therefore  the  wool  is  likely 
sound.  The  fleece  should  be  thoroughly  examined  over 
all  parts  including  the  head,  shoulders,  back,  sides,  thighs, 
belly,  and  armpits.  An  evenly  distributed,  dense  fleece  with 
a  close  crimp  and  in  a  bright,  lustrous,  healthy  condition  is 
indicative  of  value,  as  measured  by  the  demands  of  the 
manufacturer.  This  should  be  the  guide  in  judging  a  fine- 
wool  sheep  the  same  as  mutton  form  is  judged  according  to 
the  demands  of  the  butcher  and  mutton  consumer. 


Score  Card  for  Fine-wool  Sheep. 

Perfect  score. 

General  Appearance — 26  Points. 

Weight 4 

Form:  level,  deep,  stylish,  round  rather  than  square   ...  6 

Quality:  clean,  fine  bone;  silky  hair;  fine  skin 6 

Temperament :  active 4 

Condition  :  thick,  even  covering  of  firm  flesh;  full  purse  and 

flank,  showing  ripeness       .      .      ,      . 6 

Head  and  Neck — 6  Points. 

Muzzle:  fine,  broad,  wrinkled  nose;  pure  white       ....  1 

Eyes:  large,  clear,  placid 1 

Face:  wrinkled,  covered  with  soft,  velvety  coat     .      .      .'      .  1 

Forehead:  broad,  full 1 

Ears:  soft,  thick  and  velvety 1 

Neck  :  short,  muscular,  well  set  on  shoulders 1 

FOREQUARTERS — 8  PointS. 

Shoulder:  strong,  being  deep  and  broad 4 

Brisket:  projecting  forward,  breast  wide 2 

Legs:  straight,  short,  wide  apart;  shank  smooth  and  fine       .  2 

Body — 16  Points. 

Chest:  deep,  full,  indicating  constitution 6 

Back:  level,  long;  round-ribbed 4 

Loi7i:  wide,  level 4 

Flank:  low,  making  underline  straight 2 

Hindquarters — 8  Points. 

Hips:  far  apart,  level,  smooth 2 

Rump:  long,  level,  wide 4 

Legs:  straight,  short,  strong;  shank  smooth,  fine   ....  2 

Carried  forward 64 


WOOL  TYPE  411 

Pertect  score. 

Brought  forward 64 

Fleece — 36  Points. 

Kind:  Domestic,  clean  and  bright. 
Territory,  dirty  or  discolored. 

Bkinket  f^^^^y  ^^  having  dead  fibers. 
Class:  Clothing,  fiber  under  two  inches  in  length  or  unsound. 
Delaine,  fiber  two  to  three  inches  in  length. 
Combing,  fiber  over  three  inches  in  length  and  sound. 
Grade:  fine,  medium  or  coarse. 
Quantity:  long,  dense,  even  covering,  especially  over  crown, 

cheek,  armpit,  hindlegs  and  belly 12 

Quality:  fine  fiber,  crimp  close,  regular;  even  quality  includ- 
ing tops  of  folds 12 

Condition:  bright,  lustrous,  sound,  pure,  soft,  even  distribu- 
tion of  yolk,  with  even  surface  to  fleece 12 

Total 100 


Fine-wool  Breeds.  —  The  fine-wool  breeds  of  sheep  as 
described  below  are  derivatives  of  the  Spanish  Merino. 
These  breeds  exhibit  marked  pecuHarities  in  the  skin  folds 
and  the  unusually  fine  quality  and  large  quantity  of  the 
wool  produced. 

Merinos  are  sometimes  classed  into  A,  B,  and  C  types  on 
the  basis  of  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  skin  folds. 
Class  A  has  heavy  folds  at  the  neck,  over  the  body  and  hind- 
quarters. They  are  characterized  by  high  percentage  of  wool 
and  yolk  to  carcass  weight.  This  class  is  represented  by  the 
Spanish  or  American  Merino. 

Class  B,  has  a  smoother  body  than  Class  A  and  there  are 
fewer  folds  in  the  skin  and  less  yolk  in  the  staple.  This  class 
is  represented  also  by  Spanish  or  American  blood. 

Class  C  has  a  comparatively  smooth  body  with  very 
few  folds  except  possibly  around  the  neck  and  shoulders. 
This  class  is  represented  by  the  Delaine  Merino  and  Ram- 
bouillet. 

American  Merino. — The  American  Merino  is  the  smallest 
of  the  Merino  breeds,  rams  ranging  in  weight  from  125  to 
135  pounds  and  ewes  from  90  to  100.  The  form  is  angular, 
lacking  in  symmetry,  and  therefore  desirable  mutton-pro- 
ducing qualities.     The  body  is  wooled  from  the  upper  part 


412 


JUDGING  SHEEP 


of  the  muzzle  to  the  top  of  the  hoofs  with  the  exception  of  the 
ears  and  nose.  The  pecuHar  development  for  wool  production 
gives  the  breed  unusually  dense  fleece  characteristics.  The 
skin  is  excessively  wrinkled  over  the  neck  and  body.  The 
head  is  small  and  has  large,  spirally  twisted  horns  in  the  rams. 
The  ewes  are  polled.     From  the  standpoint  of  mutton  pro- 


FiG.   173. — American  Merino  ewe. 


duction  the  breed  is  unusually  defective,  the  heavy  wool- 
producing  qualities  being  antagonistic  to  the  development 
of  this  quality.  The  fleece  is  short  and  very  fine,  and  at 
times  contains  as  much  as  50  to  70  per  cent,  of  yolk.  The 
fleece  is  not  excelled  by  any  other  breed  in  quantity  or 
quality.  Shearings  of  forty  pounds  or  over  are  on  record. 
The  accumulation  of  foreign  matter  in  the  wool,  caused  by 


WOOL  TYPE 


413 


the  excessive  amount  of  yolk,  gives  the  fleece  an  unusually 
dark  appearance.  Scouring  removes  this  entirely.  The  color 
of  the  muzzle  is  white  like  the  other  parts,  which  are  very 
infrequently  exposed,  owing  to  the  uniform  and  dense  wool 
covering.  The  head  is  rather  broad,  the  neck  thin  and  the 
shoulders  light.  The  body  has  fair  depth,  although  it  is  some- 
what short  and  narrow.  The  breed  is  famous  only  for  wool 
production. 


Fig.  174. — Delaine  Merino  ram. 


Delaine  Merino.  —  The  Delaine  Merino  is  larger  in  size 
and  smoother  in  form  than  the  American  type.  Rams 
range  in  weight  from  125  to  175  pounds  and  the  ewes  from 
100  to  140  pounds.  The  breeding  out  of  the  folds  of  the  skin 
has  been  instrumental  in  the  improvement  of  the  mutton 
characteristics.  The  quality  of  the  Delaine  is  good,  both 
in  wool  and  mutton  production.  The  lower  part  of  the 
face,  muzzle,  and  lips  are  white  and  also  that  portion  of 
the  legs  not  covered  by  the  fleece.     The  ears  are  rather 


414  JUDGING  SHEEP 

small  and  covered  with  a  fine  quality  of  soft  hair.  The 
quality  of  the  fleece  in  the  Delaine  is  inferior  to  that  of  the 
American  Merino,  in  not  having  the  same  degree  of  crimp 
or  density.  The  fleece  is  also  more  open  than  in  the  Ameri- 
can type.  The  breed  is  either  horned  or  polled,  depending 
on  the  line  of  breeding  which  has  been  followed.  The 
introduction  of  crosses  has  caused  considerable  variation, 
not  only  in  the  development  of  horns,  but  also  in  the  size, 
smoothness,  and  compactness.  The  fleece  characteristics 
have  likewise  varied  with  the  breeding.  The  Delaine  Merino 
does  not  have  as  much  yolk  in  the  wool  as  the  American, 
however,  the  fleece  is  somewhat  stronger  and  longer.  Shear- 
ings of  15  to  20  pounds  are  not  uncommon. 


Standard  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of  Points  for  Delaine 
OR  Class  C  Merino  Sheep. 

Points. 

General  Appearance — 23  Points. 

Weight:  according  to  age:  30  pounds,  six  months;  60  pounds, 

twelve  months 4 

Form:  low,  compact,  symmetrical 9 

Quality:  bone  and  wool  fine,  hair  silky  ...:...  10 

Head  and  Neck — 9  Points. 

Muzzle:  fine  of  good  size,  face  medium  length        ....  2 

Eyes:  bright,  easily  seen ;  forehead  broad 2 

Ears:  medium  size,  set  well  apart,  coated  with  fine  hair  .  2 

Neck:  short  on  top,  deep,  neatly  blending  head  and  shoulders  3 

Forequarters — 14  Points. 

Shoulders:  well  placed;  chest  deep,  medium  thick        ...  8 
Brisket:  carried  well  forward,  with  some  breadth  and  fold  or 

apron 2 

Legs:  straight,  short,  strong;  feet  good 4 

Body — 10  Points. 

Back:  straight,  medium  wide;  loin  wide 6 

Ribs:  well  sprung,  long;  flanks  low 4 

Hindquarters — 12  Points. 

Hips:  smooth;  rump,  long,  level,  wide 5 

Thighs:  ranging  from  muscular  to  plump 3 

Legs:  straight,  short;  stifle  full;  feet  good 4 

Wool— 32  Points. 

Quality:  fine,  soft,  clean,  even 10 

Density:  compact  all  over  body 9 

Length:  uniform,  at  least  2y  inches  for  twelve  months      .      .  9 

Oil:  light  colored,  evenly  distributed 4 

Total lOU 


WOOL  TYPE 


415 


Rambouillet. — The  Rambouillet  is  the  largest  of  the 
Merino  breeds.  More  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
mutton-producing  quahties  than  in  the  other  two  breeds  of 
the  fine-wool  type.  The  breed  may  be  considered  dual  purpose 
in  its  characteristics.  The  fleece  is  coarser  and  more  open 
than  in  the  other  breeds.  It  covers  the  entire  body,  however, 
with  the  exception  of  the  muzzle  extremity  and  the  ears.  Rams 


Fig.   175. — Rambouillet  ram. 


of  this  breed  range  in  weight  from  175  to  200  pounds  and  ewes 
from  125  to  150.  The  constitution  of  the  Rambouillet  is 
exceptionally  good.  Specimens  of  the  breed  are  large  and 
vigorous  in  appearance.  The  body  has  good  length  and  fair 
depth,  although  there  is  some  inclination  to  stand  high  on  the 
legs.  The  head  is  large,  the  nose  strongly  developed,  and 
horns  usually  characterize  males  of  the  breed.  From  the 
mutton-producing  standpoint  the  Rambouillet  is  very  desir- 
able, although  compared  with  the  best  Down  breeds  they  are 


416 


JUDGING  SHEEP 


somewhat  inferior.  One  of  the  principal  objections  to  the 
breed  is  the  incHnation  to  coarseness  of  bone.  The  fleece 
averages  about  three  inches  in  length  and  does  not  possess 
an  excess  of  yolk  like  the  other  fine-wool  breeds.  As  a 
combined  wool  and  mutton  producer  the  breed  ranks  well, 
having  an  acceptable  mutton  form  and  reasonably  early 
maturing  qualities.    The  breed  is  widely  distributed. 


Fig.  176. — Lincoln  ewe,  illustrating  femininity  and  breeding  qualities. 


Breeding  and  Class  Characteristics. — From  the  standpoint 
of  the  stockman  sheep  may  be  divided  into  breeding,  fat, 
and  feeder  classes.  The  first  includes  pure  breds  of  the 
various  breeds,  their  grades  and  crosses.  The  second  class 
includes  fat  sheep  and  lambs,  and  the  third  feeder  sheep. 

Breeding  Classes. — In  selecting  sheep  for  breeding  purposes 
whether  pure  bred  or  grade,  special  attention  should  be 
given  to  age,  weight,  health,  quality,  constitution,  and  con- 
dition. These  subjects  have  been  fully  treated  only  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  pure-bred  and  fat  sheep,  and  the 
application  of  the  points  mentioned  here  is  therefore  neces- 


WOOL  TYPE 


417 


sarily  important.  In  selecting  sheep  for  breeding  purposes 
the  age  is  important.  Broken-mouthed  ewes  will  neither 
thrive  themselves  nor  produce  strong,  vigorous  lambs.  Ewes 
selected  for  this  purpose  should  show  indication  of  health, 
proper  weight  for  age,  good  constitution,  and  quality  of  both 
wool  and  mutton  attributes.  Such  ewes  should  be  large 
and  roomy  and  uniformly  covered  with  a  fine,  dense  fleece. 
In  pure-bred  classes  breed  type  and  sex  characteristics  are 


Fk 


-Grade-breediiifj;  ewe.      (PliotoKiapli  b>  auLiiur.) 


important.     Rams  and  ewes  should  show  masculinity  and 
femininity  respectively. 

Fat  Sheep  and  Lambs. — Fat  sheep  and  lambs  should  be 
judged  according  to  the  standard  given  formerly.  Weight, 
quality,  and  condition  are  important.  The  fat  sheep  or 
lamb  should  be  square,  low  set,  compact,  and  fine  in  flesh 
texture.  The  back  should  be  level,  the  loin  wide,  firm,  and 
the  quarters  well  developed.  Fleece  characteristics  are  not  of 
special  importance  except  that  a  reasonably  dense  fleece 
is  usually  associated  with  good  mutton-producing  qualities. 
27 


418  JUDGING  SHEEP 

Open  fleeces  are  objectionable  on  fat  sheep  as  they  are  antag- 
onistic to  good  mutton-producing  form  and  quahty. 

Feeder  Sheep. — Sheep  selected  for  feeding  purposes  should, 
like  breeding  ewes,  show  unbroken  mouths,  good  health, 
form,  constitution,  quality,  and  capacity.  Large-framed 
sheep  with  angular  bodies  and  long,  open  fleeces  do  not 
make  good  feeders.  The  age  may  vary,  depending  on  the 
object  in  view.  Early  lambs  are  usually  sold  and  consumed 
immediately,  and  therefore  do  not  constitute  a  large  propor- 
tion of  sheep  used  for  feeding  purposes.  Late  lambs,  wethers, 
and  sheep  which  have  attained  the  age  of  one  year  or  more 
or  ewes  of  proper  qualification  are  frequently  purchased  for 
this  purpose.  A  square,  low-set  body,  thrift,  capacity  and  a 
close,  compact  fleece  are  important. 

ANGORA  GOATS. 

Importance. — The  production  of  Angora  goats  is  of  consid- 
erable importance,  especially  in  certain  sections  and  under 
specialized  conditions.  The  breed  is  a  native  of  Angora,  in 
Asia  Minor,  havmg  been  imported  into  this  country  in  1849. 
As  a  general  thing,  the  Angora  is  not  an  important  factor 
on  the  average  farm.  However,  it  is  deserving  of  consid- 
eration in  its  special  fields  of  production. 

Purpose.— The  introduction  of  the  Angora  goat  into  ,the 
field  of  live  stock  husbandry  is  comparatively  recent,  although 
the  popularity  which  the  breed  has  attained  in  some  sections 
gives  it  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  field  of  live  stock  pro- 
duction. The  primary  object  for  breeding  the  Angora  is  to 
obtain  the  fleece  which  usually  sells  for  high  prices,  this 
depending,  as  in  wool,  on  the  length,  quality  and  condition. 
The  Angora  is  bred  secondarily  for  mutton  production. 
In  judging  stress  should  be  placed,  first,  on  the  length, 
density,  fineness  and  uniformity  of  fleece  covering.  Mutton- 
producing  attributes  should  be  given  a  secondary  considera- 
tion. Angoras  are  judged  in  this  respect  very  much  like  the 
fine-wool  breeds  of  sheep. 

General  Appearance. — In  general  appearance  the  Angora 
of  approved  breeding  shows  neatness  and  tidiness  of  form 


ANGORA  GOATS  419 

and  features.  It  is  usually  pure  white  in  fleece  markings. 
It  is  alert,  having  a  keen  expression,  long,  pendant  ears,  a 
body  of  medium  length  and  depth  but  inclined  to  be  narrow. 
The  fleece  parts  along  the  back  and  hangs  in  wringlets  almost 
to  the  ground  in  well-bred  animals. 

Conformation. — The  Angora  is  on  the  average  smaller  than 
the  common  goat.  The  weight  ranges  from  50  to  100  pounds, 
depending  on  the  age,  breeding  and  condition.  The  body 
should  be  reas9nably  broad,  long,  deep  and  low  set.  The 
back  should  be  straight  and  level.  The  body  is  inclined  to 
be  somewhat  narrow  and  the  legs  short  and  strong.  The  head 
should  show  strong,  clear-cut  features.  The  ears  usually 
droop  and  attain  a  length  of  six  to  eight  inches.  The  eyes 
should  be  large  and  bright.  The  horns  are  grayish  in  color, 
inclining  inward,  backward,  and  then  upward  and  outward, 
with  a  reasonable  spread  at  the  tips.  In  the  females  the 
horns  are  smaller,  straighter  and  shorter  and  are  inclined 
to  grow  more  in  an  upward  direction. 

The  head  should  be  broad  and  strong  at  the  poll  and 
taper  gradually  to  the  muzzle.  In  females,  there  is  an 
incurving  facial  outline  which  is  very  characteristic.  Taken 
as  a  whole,  the  animal  should  present  a  reasonably  square, 
strong-lined  contour.  In  many  cases,  however,  this  condition 
is  emphasized  by  the  peculiar  growth  of  the  fleece. 

Constitution. — Evidences  of  constitution  are  exhibited  in 
a  large,  bright,  prominent  eye,  a  strong  muzzle,  and  large, 
open  nostrils.  The  chest  should  be  broad,  deep,  and  the 
heart  girth  full  and  the  brisket  rather  prominent.  There 
should  be  no  indication  of  delicacy  about  the  head  and 
neck,  although  feminine  characteristics  may  apparently  por- 
tray this  condition.  Low,  narrow  shoulders  and  long,  slender 
bone  indicates  a  lack  of  vigor  and  constitutional  develop- 
ment. Other  than  these  points  constitution  is  evidenced  by 
the  same  characteristics  as  in  other  animals. 

Quality. — The  horns  should  not  be  excessively  large  or 
coarse  in  texture.  A  coarse  horn  indicates  coarse  quality 
and  otherwise  undesirable  characteristics.  The  bone  should 
be  clean,  dense,  and  of  ample  size  to  insure  a  vigorous,  con- 
tinuous period  of   usefulness.     The  head  is  indicative  of 


420 


JUDGING  SHEEP 


ANGORA  GOATS  421 

quality  by  the  clean-cut  features  possessed.  There  should  be 
no  indication  of  coarseness  about  the  muzzle  or  shoulders. 
The  fleece  is  a  reliable  guide  to  general  quality.  A  close, 
compact  fleece,  soft  to  the  touch  and  with  tightly  twisted 
spirals  indicates  quality  development.  A  bright,"^  lustrous 
fleece,  free  from  kemp  and  a  pink,  healthy  skin,  characterize 
these  animals  as  having  desirable  breeding  qualities. 

Fleece— The  fleece  should  be  dense  and  cover  the  entire 
body  uniformly.  Special  emphasis  should  be  placed  on  the 
belly  covering.  The  annual  growth  should  not  be  less  than 
ten  inches.  The  density  should  be  such  that  an  average- 
sized  Angora  will  shear  from  three  to  five  pounds.  The 
fleece  should  hang  in  wringlets  or  spirals  tightly  twisted  up 
to  the  skin.  Loose,  wavy  hair  is  objectionable  as  it  indi- 
cates coarseness  throughout.  The  fleece  should  be  bright 
and  lustrous,  having  great  tensile  strength  and  freedom  from 
kemp  or  lead-colored  hair.  This  depreciates  the  value  of 
the  fleece  regardless  of  its  quality  otherwise.  Formerly  it  was 
thought  impossible  to  breed  out  these  undesirable  qualities 
but  recent  improvements  disprove  the  idea. 

The  fleece  of  the  Angora,  known  as  mohair  from  a  com- 
mercial point  of  view,  differs  from  the  wool  in  sheep  in 
not  having  exterior  scales  and  felting  characteristics.  The 
mohair  covers  an  undergrowth  of  hair  which  is  technically 
known  as  kemp.  Mohair  is  lustrous  and  white,  at  times 
attaining  a  length  of  sixteen  to  eighteen  inches.  Its  value  is 
determined  by  the  length,  density,  fineness  and  condition. 
Emphasis  should  be  placed  on  these  characteristics  as  well  as 
on  uniformity  of  covering  and  freedom  from  kemp  or  other 
foreign  matter.  The  fleece  should  extend  from  the  base  of  the 
horns,  completely  encircling  the  neck,  and  thence  back  over 
the  body,  covering  the  body  proper,  arm  pits,  belly  and  legs. 
Angoras  which  have  been  graded  up  by  using  a  pure-bred 
sire  on  common  goats  are  frequently  bare  over  the  belly, 
in  the  arm  pits,  on  the  legs,  and  have  an  inferior  quality  of 
mohair. 

Breed  and  Sex  Characteristics.— The  breed  is  character- 
ized by  the  possession  of  horns,  both  in  males  and  females, 
the  characteristic  fleece  known  as  mohair,  and  the  absence  of 


422  JUDGING  SHEEP 

the  strong  musky  odor  of  the  common  goat.  Specimens  of 
the  breed  are  comparatively  small  in  size,  although  reason- 
ably strong  in  constitution,  especially  after  attaining  the  age 
of  two  months.  The  fleece  is  exceptionally  long  in  well-bred 
individuals  and  does  not  possess  felting  qualities  like  wool. 
The  fleece  is  shed  each  spring  if  not  shorn.  This  should  be 
considered  in  judging  when  in  this  shedding  condition.  While 
some  Angoras  are  colored  it  is  rather  a  rare  characteristic  in 
well-bred  specimens.  Colored  spots  on  the  skin  are  very 
objectionable. 

The  sex  characteristics  should  be  portrayed  the  same  as 
in  other  animals.  The  males  should  possess  a  broad,  strong 
head,  rather  large  horns,  a  full  neck,  and  a  broad,  deep  body. 
Femininity  is  indicated  by  bright  expressive  eyes,  incurving 
facial  outlines,  and  a  general  appearance  of  refinement. 

Adaptation. — Angoras  seem  especially  adapted  to  a  dry 
climate,  although  they  are  found  in  nearly  every  State  in  the 
Union.  Large  flocks  are  maintained  through  the  west  and 
southwest,  principally  in  New  Mexico  and  Texas.  With  good 
care  they  will  adapt  themselves  to  a  wide  range  of  conditions. 

Standard  of  Excellence  for  Angora  Goats 

Points. 

Fineness  and  Lustre  of  Fleece: 

Extra  Good 20 

Good ! 14 

Medium 8 

Quantity  of  Fleece: 

Extra  Good 20 

Good 14 

Medium 8 

Freedom  from  Kemp: 

Extra  Good 20 

Good 14 

Medium 8 

Size  of  Bone,  Breadth  and  Depth  of  Carcass: 

Extra  Good 20 

Good 14 

Medium 8 

Constitution  and  Form: 

Extra  Good 20 

Good 14 

Medium 8 

Total  points  for  perfect  animal 100 

Total  points  for  good  animal 70 

Total  points  for  medium  animal 40 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

APPLICATION  OF  JUDGING  AND  SELECTION  TO 
BREEDING  AND  FINISHING  FARIM  ANIMALS. 

Individual. — The  individual  animal  is  the  nucleus  for 
live  stock  improvement.  This  fact  is  evidenced  by  the 
immense  practical  use  which  is  being  made  of  the  pure-bred 
sire  in  the  improvement  of  herds  and  flocks  of  horses,  cattle, 
sheep  and  swine.  Davenport  quotes  that  the  sire  is  half 
the  herd  or  even  more.  He  is  half  of  the  first  generation, 
three-quarters  of  the  next,  seven-eighths  of  the  third  and 
so  on  until,  if  judicious  selection  be  maintained  for  a  few 
generations,  the  character  of  the  herd  will  be  fixed  by  the 
sire  alone.  This  emphasizes  the  fact  that  if  the  breeder 
must  choose  between  the  selection  of  a  pure-bred  sire  and  a 
number  of  varying  females,  in  all  cases  the  pure-bred  sire 
should  be  selected  in  preference  to  following  the  latter 
course.  This  plan  of  breeding  has  direct  application  from 
the  standpoint  of  live  stock  judging  and  selection.  Grant- 
ing this  statement,  the  sire  can  be  made  of  much  greater 
importance  by  keener  judging,  closer  selection  and  wider 
usage  on  farm  herds  and  flocks. 

Herd  Improvement. — Herd  improvement  is  divided  into 
two  fundamental  divisions,  namely,  the  breeding  of  pure- 
bred and  grade  animals.  In  either  case,  the  most  careful 
judging  and  selection  will  accomplish  the  most  noticeable 
results  in  a  given  time.  The  breeder  who  eliminates  the 
inferior  individuals  from  the  standpoint  of  individuality  as 
well  as  those  which  fail  to  respond  satisfactorily  to  the 
breeding  test,  must  not  only  be  a  breeder  in  the  general  sense 
of  the  term,  but  a  judge  of  the  highest  order.  If  otherwise, 
the  maximum  results  obtainable  from  careful  judging  and 
close  selection  will  not  materialize  in  the  herd.    The  breeder, 

(423) 


424 


APPLICATION  OF  JUDGING 


ATTRIBUTES  OF  THE  BREEDER 


425 


in  other  words,  must  be  a  keen  student  of  animal  form  and 
attainments.  He  must  be  able  to  detect  to  a  reasonable 
degree  of  accuracy  the  probable  outcome  of  the  individuals 
which  he  chooses  to  raise  the  standard  of  his  herd.  It  is 
only  by  continuous  elimination,  generation  after  generation, 
that  the  maximum  results  of  selection  are  obtained.  There 
must  be  a  standard  or  an  ideal  toward  which  breeding  opera- 
tions may  be  directed.  This  involves  an  unusual  amount  of 
animal  knowledge,  both  as  applied  to  the  individual,  the 
herd  and  the  breed  which  is  being  perfected  or  improved. 


Fig.  180. 


-Uniform  type,  illustrating  careful  judging  and  selection  for  the 
show  ring. 


Attributes  of  the  Breeder  Responsible  for  Degree  of  Improve- 
ment.— A  proper  knowledge  of  the  habits  and  treatment 
of  animals  is  most  important  from  the  breeder's  point  of 
view.  Those  who  have  been  Ultimately  associated  with 
animals  during  their  entire  lifetime  almost  without  exception 
rank  as  the  keenest  judges  and  breeders  of  live  stock.  The 
best  shepherds  are  those  who  have  assisted  and  grown  in 
the  ranks  from  early  life  to  finally  attain  the  management  of 
a  flock.  It  is  not  only  a  knowledge  of  animals  which  may 
have  been  obtained  early  or  late  in  life  but  the  direct  associa- 
tion in  feeding  and  management  which  makes  the  best 
judge,  and  therefore  the  best  breeder.  A  first-class  judge 
who    produces  prize-winning  animals  is  almot  invariably 


426  APPLICATION  OF  JUDGING 

one  who  spends  much  time  in  studying  the  peculiar  traits, 
form  and  quaUty  of  his  animals.  It  is  in  this  way  usually 
that  the  master  breeders  have  learned  the  details  of  structure, 
the  peculiarities  of  individuals,  herds  and  breeds  and  thereby 
attained  the  greatest  success  as  breeders  on  the  farm  and  in 
the  show  ring. 

Live  Stock  Shows.^ — The  importance  of  live  stock  shows 
in  establishing  standards  for  herd  and  breed  improvement 
can  scarcely  be  overestimated.  While  much  mediocre  stock 
has  been  shown  and  irrational  practices  followed  in  prepar- 
ing specimens  for  exhibition  much  valuable  knowledge 
has  been  so  gained.  The  fact  that  the  good  and  bad  con- 
ditions have  both  existed  has  given  the  student  of  judging 
and  selection  an  opportunity  to  consider  and  decide  logically 
on  the  value  of  such  practices  in  perfecting  animal  form  and 
studying  its  related  problems.  Wherever  sound  practices 
have  been  followed  they  have  usually  continued  with  the 
result  that  future  generations  have  been  improved  thereby. 
A  better  opportunity  of  carefully  studying  these  conditions 
has  never  been  afforded  the  student  or  breeder.  Live  stock 
shows  have  formed  a  most  important  nucleus  by  which  the 
best  practices  of  breeding,  feeding  and  fitting  have  been  sifted 
from  the  various  methods  and  practices  followed  in  the 
preparation  of  breeding  and  fat  animals  for  the  show  ring. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

General. 

A  Partial  Index  to  Animal  Husbandry  Literature,  by  C.  S.  Plumb. 
Published  by  the  author,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

Principles  and  Practice  of  Live  Stock  Judging,  by  Carl  W.  Gay. 
Macmillan  Co.,  New  York. 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  by  C.  S.  Plumb.  Ginn  &  Co., 
New  York. 

Judging  Live  Stock,  by  John  A.  Craig.  Kenyon  Printing  Co., 
Des  Moines,  la. 

Farm  Animals,  by  Hunt  &  Burkett.     Orange  Judd  Co.,  New  York 

Principles  of  Breeding,  by  Eugene  Davenport.  Ginn  &  Co.,  New 
York. 

Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry,  by  C.  S.  Plumb.  Webb  Pub- 
lishing Co.,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 

*  Study  International  Live  Stock  Show  Catalogue. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  427 

Farm  Live  Stock  of  Great  Britain,  by  Robert  Wallace.  Oliver  & 
Boyd,  London. 

Breeding  Farm  Animals,  by  F.  R.  Marshall.  Sanders  Publishing 
Co.,  Chicago. 

Farmers'  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture,  by  Wilcox  and  Smith.  Orange 
Judd  Co.,  New  York. 

The  Study  of  Breeds,  by  Thomas  Shaw.  Orange  Judd  Co.,  New  York. 

The  Book  of  Live  Stock  Champions,  by  P.  H.  Hale.  Hale  Pub- 
lishing Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Manual  of  Farm  Animals,  by  M.  W.  Harper.  Macmillan  Co., 
New  York. 

Animal  Husbandry  for  Schools,  by  M.  W.  Harper.  Macmillan 
Co.,  New  York. 

Live  Stock  Judging  for  Beginners.  Cir.  No.  29,  revised  edition, 
July,  1912.  Purdue  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Lafay- 
ette, Ind. 

Horses,  Cattle,  Sheep,  and  Swine,  by  G.  W.  Curtis.  Rural  Pub- 
lishing Co.,  New  York. 

Age  of  Domestic  Animals,  by  R.  S.  Huidekoper.  F.  A.  Davis,  Pub., 
Philadelphia. 

Domestic  Animals,  by  R.  L.  Allen.    A.  O.  Moore,  Pub.,  New  York. 

Horses  and  Mules. 

Productive  Horse  Husbandry,  by  Carl  W.  Gay.  J.  B.  Lippincott 
Co.,  Philadelphia. 

The  Horse  Book,  by  J.  H.  S.  Johnstone.  Sanders  Publishing  Co., 
Chicago. 

The  Horse,  by  I.  P.  Roberts.     Macmillan  Co.,  New  York. 

Horse  Breeding,  by  J.  H.  Sanders.     Sanders  Publishing  Co.,  Chicago. 

Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Horses  and  Mules,  by  R.  C.  Obrecht. 
Bulletin  No.  122,  Illinois  Experiment  Station,  Urbana. 

Examination  of  Horses  for  Soundness.  Bulletin  No.  109,  Purdue 
University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Lafayette,  Ind. 

How  to  Judge  a  Horse,  by  F.  W.  Bach.  William  R.  Jenkins,  Pub., 
New  York. 

Points  of  the  Horse,  by  M.  H.  Hayes.     Thacker  &  Co.,  London.         «■ 

Ponies,  Past  and  Present,  by  Sir  Walter  Gibbey.  Vinton  &  Co., 
London. 

Breeding  and  Rearing  of  Jacks,  Jennets,  and  Mules,  by  L.  W. 
Knight.     Cumberland  Press,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

Horses,  Asses,  Zebras,  and  Mules,  by  Tegetmeier  and  Sutherland. 
Horace  Cox,  London. 

Cattle. 

Shorthorn  Cattle,  by  A.  H.  Sanders.  Sanders  Publishing  Co., 
Chicago. 

Little  Sketches  of  Famous  Beef  Cattle,  by  C.  S.  Plumb.  Published 
by  the  author,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

History  of  Hereford  Cattle,  by  McDonald  and  Sinclair.  Vinton 
&  Co.,  London. 

Beef  Production,  by  H.  W.  Mumford.  Published  by  the  author, 
Urbana,  111. 


428  APPLICATION  OF  JUDGING 

History  of  Abderdeen-Angus  Cattle,  by  McDonald  and  Sinclair. 
Vinton  &  Co.,  London. 

Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production,  by  C.  H.  Eckles.  MacmUlan 
Co.,  New  York. 

Modern  Packing  House,  by  F.  W.  Wilder.  Nickerson  and  Collins, 
Chicago. 

Market  Grades  and  Classes  of  Cattle,  by  H.  W.  Mumford.  Bulletin 
No.  78,  Illinois  Experiment  Station,  Urbana. 

Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Meat,  by  L.  D.  Hall.  Bulletin  No. 
147,  Illinois  Experiment  Station,  Urbana. 

Stoine. 

Swine,  by  William  Dietrich.     Sanders  Publishing  Co.,  Chicago. 

Hog  Book,  by  H.  C.  Dawson.     Sanders  Publishing  Co.,  Chicago. 

Swine  in  America,  by  F.  D.  Coburn.     Orange  Judd  Co.,  New  York. 

Swine  Husbandry,  by  F.  D.  Coburn.     Orange  Judd  Co.,  New  York. 

Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Swine,  by  WUliam  Dietrich,  Bulletin 
No.  97,  Illinois  Experiment  Station,  Urbana. 

Productive  Swine  Husbandry,  by  G.  E.  Day,  Lippincott  &  Co., 
Philadelphia. 

Sheep  and  Goats. 

Sheep  Farming  in  America,  by  Joseph  E.  Wing.  Sanders  Publishing 
Co.,  Chicago. 

The  Domestic  Sheep,  by  Henry  Stewart,  Chicago. 

Modern  Sheep,  Breeds  and  Management,  by  W.  J.  Clarke.  Ameri- 
can Sheep  Breeder  Co.,  Chicago. 

Fitting  Sheep  for  Show  and  Market,  by  W.  J.  Clarke.  Draper 
Publishing  Co.,  Chicago. 

Manual  of  Angora  Goat  Raising,  by  G.  F.  Thompson,  Chicago. 

Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Sheep,  by  W.  C.  Coffey.  Bulletin 
No.  129,  Illinois  Experiment  Station,  Urbana. 

The  Wool  Grower  and  the  Wool  Trade,  by  F.  R.  Marshall  and  L. 
L.  Heller.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Poultry  Husbandry,  by  J.  P.  Lippincott.  Lea  &  Febiger,  Philadel- 
phia. 

Anatomy  of  Domestic  Animals,  by  L.  W.  Sisson.  W.  B.  Saunders 
Pubhshing  Co.,  Philadelphia. 


APPENDIX. 


Pure-bred  Live  Stock  Registry  Associations. 

Horses. 

Percheron  Society  of  America,  Wayne  Dinsmore,  Secretary,  Union 
Stock  Yards,  Chicago,  111. 

National  French  Draft  Horse  Association,  C.  E.  Stubbs,  Secretary, 
Fairfield,  Iowa. 

American   Clydesdale  Association,  R.  B.  Ogilvie,  Secretary,  Union 
Stock  Yards,  Chicago,  111. 

American  Shire  Horse  Association,  Chas.  Burgess,  Secretary,  Wenona, 
Illinois. 

American  Association  of  Importers  and  Breeders  of  Belgian  Draft 
Horses,  J.  D.  Connor,  Jr.,  Secretary,  Wabash,  Ind. 

American  Suffolk  Horse  Association,  A.  Graham  Galbraith,  Secretary. 
DeKalb,  111. 

American  Hackney  Horse  Society,  Gurney  C.  Gue,  Secretary,  308 
W.  97th  St.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

French  Coach  Horse  Society  of  America,  Duncan  E.  Willett,  Secre- 
tary, Oak  Park,  111. 

German   Hanoverian   and   Oldenburg  Coach  Horse  Association  of 
America,  J.  Crouch,  Secretary,  Lafayette,  Ind. 

Cleveland    Bay    Society    of    America,    R.    P.  Stericker,    Secretary, 
Oconomowoc,  Wis. 

American   Morgan   Register  Association,    T.   E.   Boyce,   Secretary, 
Middlebury,  Vt. 

American  Saddle  Horse  Breeders'  Association,  R.  H.  Lillard,  Secre- 
tary, Louisville,  Ky. 

American  Trotting  Register  Association,  W.  H.  Kiiight,  Secretary, 
355  Dearborn  St.,  Chicago,  111. 

The  Arabian  Horse  Club  of  America,  Henry  K.  Bush  Brown,  Secre- 
tary, Newburg,  N.  Y. 

The  Jockey  Club,  W.  H.  Rowe,  Secretary,  5th  Ave.  and  46th  St., 
New  York,  N.  Y. 

Welsh  Pony  and  Cob  Society  of  America,  Geo.  E.  Brown,  Secretary, 
Aurora,  111. 

American   Shetland  Pony  Club,    Miss  Julia  M.   Wade,   Secretary, 
Lafayette,  Ind. 

American  Jack  Stock  Stud  Book,  J.  W.  Jones,  Secretary,  Columbia, 
Tenn.  ^ 

( 429 ) 


430  APPENDIX 


Cattle. 

American  Shorthorn  Breeders'  Association,  F.  W.  Harding,  Secre- 
tary, Chicago,  111. 

The  Polled  Dui-ham  Breeders'  Association,  J.  M.  Martz,  Secretary, 
Greenville,  Ohio. 

American  Hereford  Cattle  Breeders'  Association,  R.  J.  Kinzer, 
Secretary,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

American  Aberdeen-Angus  Breeders'  Association,  Chas.  Gray, 
Secretary,  17  Exchange  Ave.,  Chicago,  III. 

American  Galloway  Breeders'  Association,  Robt.  W.  Brown,  Secre- 
tary, 817  Exchange  Ave.,  Chicago,  111. 

The  Red  Polled  Cattle  Club  of  America,  H.  A.  Martin,  Secretary, 
Gotham,  Wis. 

American  Devon  Cattle  Club,  L.  P.  Sisson,  Secretary,  Charlottes- 
ville, Va. 

American  Jersey  Cattle  Club,  R.  M.  Gow,  Secretary,  8  W.  17th 
St.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

American  Guernsey  Cattle  Club,  William  H.  Caldwell,  Secretary, 
Peterboro,  N.  H. 

Holstein-Friesian  Association  of  America,  F.  L.  Houghton,  Secre- 
tary, Brattleboro,  Vt. 

Ayrshire  Breeders'  Association,  C.  M.  Winslow,  Secretary,  Brandon, 
Vermont. 

Brown  Swiss  Cattle  Breeders'  Association,  Ira  Inman,  Secretary, 
Beloit,  Wis. 

Dutch  Belted  Cattle  Association  of  America,  G.  G.  Gibbs,  Secretary, 
Marksboro,  N.  J. 

'  Swine. 

American  Berkshire  Association,  Frank  S.  Springer,  Secretary,  510 
E.  Monroe  St.,  Springfield,  111. 

National  Poland-China  Record  Association,  A.  M.  Brown,  Secretary, 
Winchester,  Ind. 

Standard  Poland-China  Record  Association,  Geo.  F.  Woodworth, 
Secretary,  Maryville,  Mo. 

American  Poland-China  Record  Association,  W.  M.  McFadden, 
Secretary,   Union  Stock  Yards,  Chicago,  111. 

National  Duroc-Jersey  Record  Association,  J.  R.  Pfander,  Secretary, 
Peoria,  111. 

American  Duroc-Jersey  Record  Association,  T.  P.  Pearson,  Secre- 
tary, Thornton,  Ind. 

•    Ohio  Improved  Chester  White  Swine  Breeders'  Association,  J.   C. 
Hiles,  Secretary,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Cheshire  Swine  Breeders'  Association,  Ed.  S.  Hill,  Secretary,  Free- 
ville,  N.  Y. 

American  Essex  Association,  F.  M.  Strout,  Secretary,  McLean,  111. 

American  Yorkshire  Club,  Harry  G.  Krum,  Secretary,  White  Bear 
Lake,  Minn. 

American  Tamworth  Swine  Record  Association,  E.  N.  Ball,  Secretary 
Hamburg,  Mich. 


GLOSSARY  OF  HORSE  AND  MULE  MARKET  TERMS     431 

American  Hampshire  Swine  Record  Association,  E.  C.  Stone,  Secre- 
tary, Peoria,  111. 

National  Mule-foot  Swine  Record  Association,  W.  H.  Morris,  Secre- 
tary, Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Sheep. 

American  Leicester  Breeders'  Association,  A.  J.  Temple,  Secretary, 
Cameron,  111. 

American  Cotswold  Registry  Association,  F.  W.  Harding,  Secretary, 
Waukesha,  Wis. 

The  National  Lincoln  Sheep  Breeders'  Association,  Bert  Smith, 
Secretary,  Charlotte,  ]\Iich. 

American  Southdown  Breeders'  Association,  Frank  S.  Springer, 
Secretary,  Springfield,  111. 

American  Shropshire  Registry  Association,  Miss  Julia  'M.  Wade, 
Secretary,  Lafayette,  Ind. 

American  Oxford  Down  Record  Association,  W.  A.  Shafor,  Secretary, 
Hamilton,  Ohio. 

American  Hampshire  Sheep  Association,  Comfort  A.  Taylor,  Secre- 
tary, 310  East  Chicago  St.,  Coldwater,  Mich. 

Continental  Dorset  Club,  Joseph  E.  Wing,  Secretary,  Mechanicsburg, 
Ohio. 

American  Cheviot  Sheep  Society,  F.  E.  Dawley,  Secretary,  Fayette- 
viUe,  N.  Y. 

America-n  Tunis  Sheep  Breeders'  Association,  Chas.  Roundtree, 
Secretarj',  Crawfordsville,  Ind. 

Romne}'  Marsh  Sheep  Breeders'  Association,  J.  E.  Wing,  Secretary, 
Mechanicsburg,  Ohio. 

Vermont,  New  York  and  Ohio  Merino  Sheep  Breeders'  Association, 
Wesley  Bishop,  Secretary,  Delaware,  Ohio. 

National  Delaine  Merino  Sheep  Breeders'  Association,  J.  B.  Johnson, 
Secretary,  24S  West  Pike  St.,  Canonsburg,  Pa. 

American  Rambouillet  Sheep  Breeders'  Association,  Dwight  Lincoln, 
Secretary,  Milford  Center,  Ohio. 


GLOSSARY    OF    HORSE    AND  MULE  MARKET    TERMS. ^ 

A  Bull. — A  horse  so  windy  that  he  cannot  stand  much 
exertion  without  choking. 

A  Few  Hairs  Off. — A  skin  blemish  not  haired  over;  usually 
a  wire  mark  which  may  be  either  large  or  small. 

A  Hole  In. — Used  in  speaking  of  an  animal  that  is  believed 
to  be  defective  in  some  manner  but  at  present  it  is  not 
apparent. 

An  Indian. — A  wild  or  vicious  horse  difficult  to  handle 
in  or  out  of  the  stall. 

1  From  Bulletin  Xo.  122,  Courtesy  Illinois  Experiment  Station,  Urbana,  111. 


432  ■    APPENDIX 

At  the  Halter.— See  No.  6,  Auction  Rules. 

Beefy  Hocks. — Thick,  meaty  hocks,  lacking  in  quality. 

Bench-legged. — See  knock-kneed. 

Blue-eye. — ^An  unsound  eye  with  blue  appearance.  The 
sight  may  or  may  not  be  entirely  gone. 

Bobber  or  Jig  Back. — A  horse  or  mule  that  wobbles  in  hind- 
quarters when  he  moves,  due  to  an  unsound  or  weak  back 
in  the  region  of  the  loin. 

Boggy  in  Hocks. — Bog  spavins. 

Bow-legged. — Too  wide  apart  at  the  knees,  the  opposite 
of  knock-kneed. 

Bowed  Tendon.— An  enlarged  tendon  back  of  the  canon, 
due  to  an  injury.     » 

Broken  Knees. — Knees  which  have  had  the  skin  broken 
from  a  fall  or  a  bruise  and  much  enlarged. 

Buck-kneed.— Knees  bent  forward  when  standing. 

Bull  Pen. — An  auction  ring  at  any  market  where  horses 
are  sold. 

Bush. — To  deduct  a  part  of  a  stated  sale  price  on  account 
of  a  blemish,  or  unsoundness  not  mentioned  or  not  apparent 
at  time  of  sale,  or  for  other  reasons. 

Calf-kneed. — Knees  bent  too  far  back — the  opposite  of 
buck-kneed. 

Capped  Hock. — The  point  of  the  hock  back  of  the  web 
enlarged.    Caused  by  a  bruise  of  the  bursa. 

Car  Bruise. — Bruised  in  car  in  shipping.  If  freshly  done 
swelling  and  inflammation  will  be  present. 

Cartilage. — Prominent  lateral  cartilage  or  incipient  side 
bone. 

Chancy. — Purchased  at  a  moderate  price  because  of  an 
uncertainty,  with  prospects  for  developing  into  something 
good. 

Cock  Ankle. — Standing  bent  forward  on  the  fetlocks— more 
often  on  the  hind  ones. 

Coon-footed. — Long  and  very  low  pasterns. 

Coupling. — The  space  or  connection  between  the  dorsal 
vertebrae  and  the  pelvis  on  top  of  the  back.  An  animal 
that  has  a  long  coupling  is  too  long  in  the  lumbar  vertebrse. 
This  is  best  measured  by  the  distance  of  last  rib  from  hip. 


GLOSSARY  OF  HORSE  AND  MULE  MARKET  TERMS      433 

Cow-hocked. — Standing  with  hocks  together  and  hind- 
toes  out. 

Crampy. — In  hindlegs  —  raising  either  one  or  both  legs 
up  with  a  jerk.  More  apparent  when  the  animal  has  been 
standing  and  is  cool. 

In  the  Back. — When  the  head  is  elevated  and  the  animal 
is  compelled  to  move  backward  he  raises  his  tail  and  shows 
a  quivering  of  the  flanks,  soreness  of  the  loin  and  an  inclina- 
tion to  drag  his  feet. 

Cribber. — An  animal  having  the  vice  of  biting  or  setting 
the  teeth  against  something  and  "sucking  wind." 

Cross-firing. — Hitting  one  of  the  forefeet  with  the  opposite 
hindfoot  when  traveling. 

Curb. — An  injury  or  sprain  of  the  ligament  at  the  back 
of  the  hock  which  usually  causes  an  enlargement. 

Curby  Hock. — ^The  back  of  the  hock  is  rounding  when 
viewed  from  the  side. 

Cushion. — An  enlarged  bursa  occurring  just  below  the 
hock  near  the  forward  edge  on  the  outside  of  the  canon. 
A  Michigan  pad. 

Cutting. — ^Interfering. 

Docked. — Having  the  end  of  the  tail  cut  off. 

Docked  and  Set. — By  an  operation  the  end  of  the  tail  is 
cut  off  and  the  stump  is  set  up. 

Dummy. — A  horse  whose  brain  is  affected,  the  cause 
usually  being  overfeeding  and  lack  of  exercise.  The  symp- 
toms are  listlessness  and  hesitancy  in  moving;  a  vacant 
stare  in  the  eyes  and  a  proneness  to  cock  the  ears  and  look 
sideways  and  upward;  also,  the  holding  of  hay  and  feed 
in  the  mouth  without  any  attempt  at  mastication. 

Ewe  Neck. — A  deficiency  of  muscling  causing  a  depression 
at  the  top  of  the  neck  just  in  front  of  the  withers. 

Falls  Out  of  Bed. — Pulls  back  on  halter  rope. 

Feather  in  Eye. — A  mark  across  the  eyeball  not  touching 
the  pupil,  often  caused  by  an  injury.  It  may  or  may  not 
impair  the  sight. 

Filled-in  Hocks. — ]\Iay  mean  either  bog  spavins  or  thorough- 
pins,  though  most  generally  the  former. 

28 


434  APPENDIX 

Fistula. — Fistulous  withers.  An  abscess  occurring  in  the 
region  of  the  withers. 

Forging. — Striking  the  front  shoes  with  the  toe  of  the 
hind  ones. 

Founder. — Inflammation  of  the  feet  causing  lameness. 
Technically  known  as  laminitis. 

Glass-eye. — See  wall-eye. 

Goose  Rump. — A  short,  steep  croup  and  narrow  at  point 
of  the  buttock. 

Gristle. — An  incipient  side  bone. 

Halter  Puller. — Pulls  back  on  halter  rope. 

Hand.- — Four  inches.  Horses  are  measured  at  the  highest 
point  on  the  withers  in  terms  of  hands.  14-2  would  mean 
14  hands  and  2  inches,  or  58  inches. 

Heavey. — Having  the  heaves. 

Hipped. — Having  the  point  of  one  hip  broken  over  so 
that  it  appears  lower  than  when  normal.  It  does  not  materi- 
ally impair  usefulness. 

Hitching. — Having  a  shorter  stride  in  one  hindleg  than 
the  other. 

Hog  Back. — A  roached  back,  the  opposite  from  sway  back. 

Hollow  Back. — A  sway  back. 

Interfering.— Striking  the  fetlock  or  canon  with  the 
opposite  foot  as  it  passes,  either  in  front  or  behind. 

Jack. — A  bone  spavin. 

Jibber. — An  unguidable  horse,  often  "green." 

Knee-banger. — One  that  interferes^ — hitting  his  knees. 

Knee-sprung. — Over  on  the  knees  caused  by  relaxation 
of  the  extensor  muscles — sometimes  spoken  of  as  buck- 
knees. 

Knock-kneed. — The  front  legs  bent  in  at  the  knees  with 
feet  wide  apart.    Sometimes  called  bench-legged. 

Legs  Go. — See  No.  5,  Auction  Rules. 

Light  in  the  Timber. — Light  bones,  especially  in  the  canons. 

Little  Green. — Not  thoroughly  broken.  Often  means  an 
animal   that   will    not   pull. 

Lugger. — One  that  pulls  or  lugs  on  the  bit. 

Lunker. — An  exceptionally  big,  heavy-boned  horse. 

Makes  a  Little  Noise. — A  verytlwindy. 


GLOSSARY  OF  HORSE  AND  MULE  MARKET  TERMS      435 

Michigan  Pad. — A  puff  or  cushion  that  occurs  just  below 
the  hock  on  the  outside  of  the  hind  canon  near  the  forward 
edge.     The  same  as  outside  cushion. 

Moon  Blindness. — Periodic  opthahnia. 

Nicked.^ — An  operation  severing  the  cords  on  one  side  of  the 
tail  to  straighten  it. 

Nigger-heeled. — Front  toes  turned  out,  heels  in. 

Old  Skin  or  Skate. — A  worn-out  animal. 

Outside  Cushion. — The  same  as  cushion  or  Michigan  pad. 

Over-reach. — Reaching  farther  forward  w^ith  the  hindfeet 
in  traveling  than  where  the  front  ones  were  picked  up. 

Paddle. — Winging  out  with  the  front  feet. 

Parrot  Mouth. — The  upper  submaxillary  longer  than  the 
lower  jaw. 

Periodic  Ophthalmia. — Inflammatory  affection  of  the  inte- 
rior of  the  eye.  It  usually  disappears  in  a  week  or  ten  days 
and  returns  again  in  a  few^  weeks.  The  cycles  are  often  com- 
pleted in  about  a  month  and  because  of  this  fact  many 
people  believe  the  trouble  is  in  some  way  related  to  the  moon 
changes,  hence  the  name  "moon  blindness." 

Pig-eye. — A  small  eye  set  too  much  in  the  head  and  with 
thick  eyelids.  It  accompanies,  in  general,  animals  with  a 
lymphatic  temperament  and  with  imperfect  vision. 

Pigeon-toed. — Front  toes  turned  in — the  opposite  of  nigger- 
heeled. 

Pink-eye. — A  disease  causing  a  white  skum  to  form  over 
the  eye  often  causing  blindness. 

Poll  Evil. — A  fistulous  condition  or  abscess  on  or  near 
the  poll. 

Pones. — -Lumps  of  fat  on  a  mule's  body. 

Posting. — Rising  and  falling  in  the  saddles  with  each 
alternative  step  when  the  horse  is  trotting. 

PufiEs. — Wind  galls,  bog  spavins,  or  thoroughpins. 

Quarter  Crack. — A  vertical  crack  on  the  side  of  the  hoof 
often  running  to  coronet. 

Quittor. — A  fistulous  opening  upon  the  heel  or  coronary 
band  of  the  foot. 

Rat  Tail. — A  tail  with  but  little  hair. 


436  APPENDIX 

Rejects. — Animals  not  filling  the  guarantee  and  conse- 
quently turned  back  on  the  hands  of  the  seller. 

Rickety. — The  same  as  bobber  or  jig  back. 

Ring-bone. — A  bony  growth  on  the  upper  or  lower  pastern 
bones  and  most  alw^ays  causing  lameness. 

Ripper. — An  exceptionally  good  big  animal. 

Roach  Back. — See  hog  back. 

Roarer. — Defective  in  wind.     Very  windy. 

Rough  Behind.— Having  a  bone  spavin. 

Rounding  Hock. — Having  a  curb. 

Sand  Crack. — A  vertical  crack  in  the  middle  of  the  hoof 
often  running  to  coronet. 

Scalping. — When  speeding,  the  horse  strikes  the  front 
side  of  the  hind  coronet,  pastern  or  canon  against  the  front 
toe.  Also,  applied  to  a  trader  that  buys  and  sells  animals 
on  the  market. 

Seam  in  Hoof. — A  scar  in  hoof  from  an  injury  of  some  kind, 
such  as  cracks,  wire  marks,  calks,  etc. 

Seedy  Toe. — A  separation  of  the  walls  of  the  toe  from  the 
sensitive  laminse.  Very  often  the  end  of  the  toes  turns 
slightly  up. 

Serpentine. — An  animal  that  extends  and  withdraws  his 
tongue  as  a  serpent. 

Serviceably  Sound. — See  No.  2,  Auction  Rules. 

Shoe  Boil. — A  bruise  at  elbow  which  results  in  an  abscess, 
caused  from  the  animal  lying  on  his  foot  in  such  a  way 
that  the  heel  of  the  shoe  strikes  the  elbow. 

Sickle  Hock. — Too  much  bend  in  the  hock.  A  conformation 
predisposed  to  curbs. 

Side-bone. — An  ossified  lateral  cartilage  occurring  on 
either  side  at  the  top  of  the  foot. 

Slab-sided. — Flat-ribbed. 

Smoke  His  Pipe. — An  animal  with  lip  torn  where  the  bridle 
bit  rests. 

Smoky  Eye. — A  clouded  eye  with  whitish  appearance. 

Smooth  Mouth. — An  aged  horse. 

Sound. — See  No.  1,  Auction  Rules. 

Speck  in  Eye. — ^A  spot  on  the  eye  not  covering  the  pupil. 
It  may  or  ma}^  not  impair  the  sight. 


GLOSSARY  OF  HORSE  AXD  MULE  MARKET  TERMS     437 

Speedy  Cutting. — Striking  the  inside  of  the  hind  canon 
against  the  front  foot  as  the  hindfoot  is  brought  forward 
and  passes  the  front  foot  on  the  outside  in  over-reaching. 
This  only  happens  in  speedy  horses. 

Splay-footed. — Nigger-heeled. 

Splint.— A  bony  growth  on  the  canon-bone  occurring 
most  often  on  the  front  legs  and  either  on  the  inside  or  out, 
but  more  often  on  the  inside. 

Stands  a  Little  Careless  in  Front. — Knees  sprung  or  buck- 
kneed. 

Stringy. — String-halt.  A  convulsive  action  in  the  hind- 
legs  flexing  either  one  or  both  up  with  a  jerk. 

Stump-sucker. — A  cribber. 

Sucker. — An  animal  with  some  defect  which  is  not  always 
apparent. 

Sweeney. — Atrophied  shoulder  muscles  causing  a  depression. 

Thick  Neck. — A  neck  too  thick  at  the  shoulder  for  a  collar 
to  fit  well. 

Thoroughpins. — PufBness  occurring  in  the  web  of  the  hock. 

Tongue  Loller. — Permitting  the  tongue  to  hang  out. 

Trephined. — A  hole  in  the  jaw  bored  for  removing  a  molar 
tooth. 

Trot  Out  Short.— Sore  in  front,  having  a  short  stride. 

Wall-eye. — The  iris  a  pearly  white  color,  due  to  a  lack 
of  pigment.     Sometimes  called  glass-eye. 

Weaver. — Continual  swaying  back  and  forth  when  standing 
in  the  stall. 

Wind  and  Work. — See  No.  3,  Auction  Rules. 

Wind  Galls. — Puffs  occurring  at  the  upper  part  of  the 
fetlock  joints. 

Windy. — One  that  whistles  or  roars  when  exerted. 

Whistler. — Defective  in  wind.     See  windy. 

Winging. — Throwing  the  front  feet  out  or  in  when  traveling. 

Worker. — See  No.  4,  Auction  Rules. 


AUCTION  RULES. 

Note. — In  the  auction  ring  sales  are  made  under  certain 
well-understood  rules  which  are  published  and  announced 
from  the  auction  stand,  recorded  and  stand  as  a  guarantee. 
The  following  are  the  principal  rules  which  govern  sales  in 
the  auction  ring.  Exceptions  to  these  rules  may  be  an- 
nounced from  the  auction  stand  pointing  out  the  defects, 
in  which  case  they  are  recorded  and  go  with  the  horse. 

1.  <So?//?f/.^Perfectly  sound  in  every  way. 

2.  ServiceaUy  Round. — Virtually  a  sound  animal,  barring 
slight  blemishes  which  do  not  interfere  with  his  usefulness 
in  any  way.  His  wind  and  eyes  must  be  good,  but  a  spot  or 
streak  in  the  eye  which  does  not  affect  the  sight  will  be 
considered  serviceably  sound  as  long  as  the  pupil  of  the  eye 
is  good.    He  must  not  be  lame  or  sore  in  any  way. 

3.  Wind  and  Work. — The  only  guarantee  this  carries 
with  it  is  that  the  animal  has  good  wind  and  is  a  good  worker. 

4.  Work  Only. — He  must  be  a  good  worker  and  everything 
else  goes  with  him.    No  other  guarantee  than  to  work. 

5.  Legs  Go. — Everything  that  is  on  the  animal's  legs  go 
with  him;  nothing  is  guaranteed  except  that  he  must  not 
be  lame  or  crampy.  He  must,  however,  be  serviceably  sound 
in  every  other  respect. 

6.  At  the  Halter. — Sold  just  as  he  stands  without  any 
recommendations.  He  may  be  lame,  vicious,  balky,  kicker 
or  anything  else.  The  purchaser  takes  all  the  risk.  The  title 
only  is  guaranteed. 


(438) 


BRIEF  DESCRIPTIONS  APPLICABLE  TO  MOST 
BREEDS  OF  CATTLE,  SWINE,  AND  SHEEP. 

By  Robert  Wallace, 

UNIVERSITY   OF  EDINBURGH. 

General  Points  of  Beef-producing  Cattle. — The  masculine 
or  the  feminine  characteristics  naturally  represented  in 
individual  specimens  of  each  sex. 

General  appearance  stylish,  and  showing  quality;  figure 
compact  and  well-proportioned,  deep,  broad,  and  low  set 
as  opposed  to  being  leggy. 

Head  broad  between  the  eyes,  flat  across  the  crown  (with 
exceptions  in  polled  breeds)  and  down  the  face,  which  should 
be  neither  "dished"  nor  Roman,  but  short,  or  of  medium 
length,  with  a  quiet  expression;  forehead  broad  and  full; 
muzzle  broad,  full,  distinct,  and  dewy;  mouth  large;  jaw 
wide;  nostrils  large;  eyes  large,  placid,  and  clear;  horns 
none,  or  varying  in  length,  color,  and  strength,  according  to 
breed,  fine  and  symmetrical,  set  on  the  crest  of  the  head; 
ears  full  and  sensitive,  of  fine  texture,  well  covered  with 
hair,  and  varying  slightly  in  position  in  the  different  breeds. 

Neck  medium  length,  full  at  the  "  neck-vein,"  or  "  shoulder- 
vein"  where  it  joins  the  body,  broad  (muscular  and  crested 
in  the  male),  but  fine,  and  tapering  tow^ard  the  head — to 
which  it  should  join  without  thickness  or  chokiness — and 
straight  from  the  shoulder  top  to  the  roots  of  the  horns, 
excepting  when  it  rises  into  the  crest  of  a  bull. 

Body  long  and  deep,  equally  balanced  before  and  behind; 
back  broad  throughout  its  length,  smooth  and  even,  and 
straight  from  the  top  of  the  shoulders  to  the  tail-head;  the 
frame  well  and  equally  covered  with  firm  flesh,  especially 
in  the  regions  of  the  best  cuts,  not  patchy  on  the  hooks, 
tail-head,  rump,  shoulders,  or  other  parts  (when  prime  fat, 
a  little  pit  may  be  felt  on  the  point  of  each  hook).    The  trunk, 

(439) 


440  APPENDIX 

looked  at  from  any  point,  should  resemble  as  nearly  as 
possible  a  parallelogram;  the  under  and  upper  lines  straight 
and  parallel;  brisket  projecting  well  forward  and  wide, 
making  the  forelegs  stand  well  apart;  loin  thick  and  broad; 
flank  full  and  deep,  even  with  the  underline;  foreflank 
to  correspond,  well  filled;  tail  thin,  set  on  well  back  (but 
not  too  high),  and  falling  perpendicularly. 

Skin  moderately  thick  (not  papery),  pliable,  and  mellow 
or  mossy  to  touch;  hair  soft  and  abundant,  covering  all 
parts  w^ell. 

Shoulders  well  covered  with  flesh  and  laid  back  over  the 
ribs,  so  that  the  natural  depression  behind  them  in  the 
region  of  the  heart  or  girth  line  should  not  be  too  pronounced, 
broad  and  compact  on  top;  the  shoulder-blades  adhering 
closely  to  the  trunk;  shoulder-points  fine,  "snug,"  and  well 
covered. 

Chest,  viewed  from  before  or  from  behind  the  shoulder, 
full,  wide,  deep,  and  massive;  girth  large;  crops  full. 

The  forearm  and  leg  straight  and  short;  muscle  large 
and  broad;  leg-bones  dense  and  strong,  though  smooth, 
fine,  and  flat  (abnormally  small  bone  shows  tendency  to 
diminished  size);  legs  short  and  well  under  the  body;  hoofs 
clear  and  oily  looking. 

Hindquarters  full  and  well  packed,  lengthy  from  the 
hook-bones  to  the  pin-bones  (which  should  be  well  apart); 
rump  wide  and  even,  and  the  tail-head  smooth,  not  patchy, 
and  no  part  rising  above  the  back  level;  hips  smoothly 
covered,  distance  from  each  other  to  harmonize  with  other 
parts;  thighs  broad,  thick,  and  well  dow^n  toward  the 
hocks;  twist  or  inner  thigh  full,  deep,  and  plump. 

Ribs  thickly  fleshed,  well  sprung  (arched),  and  deep,  filling 
up  deficiency  behind  the  shoulder  and  hollow  in  front  of  the 
hooks,  i.  e.,  "well-ribbed  home." 

Legs  straight  and  short,  shanks  fine  and  smooth. 

The  lines  of  the  body  flowing,  not  sharp  or  abrupt,  with 
a  general  balance  of  parts  to  please  the  eye;  carriage  stylish. 

Points  Generally  Applicable  to  all  Breeds  of  Swine. — In 
judging,  it  is  best  to  begin  at  the  feet  and  legs,  as  these  are 
most  important,  on  account  of  their  having  to  carry  the 


POINTS   APPLICABLE    TO  ALL  BREEDS  OF  SWINE     441 

weight  when  the  animal  is  fat  and  heavy,  and  to  insure 
firm,  free  action.  The  feet  should  be  proportionate  and 
neat;  the  pasterns  strong;  the  legs  perfectly  straight  and 
well  set,  level  with  the  outside  of  the  body,  with  plenty 
of  fine,  flat  bone,  fleshed  well  down  in  both  fore  and  hind- 
quarters; feet  wide  apart;  loin  strong,  and  as  broad  as  the 
shoulder-head,  which  should  be  compact  and  free  from  any 
opening  or  looseness;  the  back  broad  all  the  way,  straight 
and  level,  not  drooping  too  much  at  the  rump  when  the 
animal  walks,  and  extending  over  the  neck.  Pigs  are  all 
liable  to  arch  in  the  back  and  droop  at  the  rump  when 
standing.  The  underline  should  be  parallel,  and  continued 
below  the  jowl;  the  chest  wide  and  deep;  the  belly  full, 
but  not  flabby;  the  quarters  long  and  wide,  and  straight 
from  hip  to  tail;  hams  broad,  full  and  deep  to  hocks;  the 
flank  thick,  full,  and  well  let  down;  the  ribs  well  sprung, 
and  sides  deep;  the  neck  thick,  especially  toward  the 
shoulders,  and  of  proportionate  length;  the  ears  vary  from 
a  foot  long  to  a  few  inches,  each  breed  having  its  own  special 
size,  shape  and  position;  the  head  broad  between  the  eyes; 
the  nose  long  or  short,  according  to  breed;  the  under  jaw 
shorter  than  the  upper;  the  cheeks  full;  the  eye  not  too 
small,  quick,  but  mild;  the  tail  stout  and  long,  and  set  high, 
but  not  coarse,  and  a  tuft  of  long,  fine  hairs  on  its  tip;  the 
body  well  covered  all  over  with  flesh,  and  of  a  rectangular 
shape  from  all  points  of  sight,  deep  and  wide  before  and 
behind;  the  skin  medium  in  thickness,  and  covered  with 
a  sufiicient  coat  of  characteristic  hair. 

Though  the  points  enumerated  are  those  looked  for  at 
shows,  it  has  been  most  forcibly  pointed  out  by  Sanders 
Spencer,  one  of  the  most  successful  breeders  and  exporters 
of  white  pigs  in  England,  and  also  by  those  interested  in  the 
bacon-curing  trade,  that  the  most  economical  pig  to  breed, 
and  consequently  the  one  which  ought  to  be  encouraged  in 
the  show  yard,  should  be  long  in  the  body,  a  good  medium 
depth  in  the  ribs,  light  in  the  neck  and  forequarters,  and 
heavy  and  deep  behind  in  the  hams  or  gammon;  or,  as 
A.  W.  Shaw,  of  Limerick,  has  tersely  put  it:  "What  is  really 
wanted,  is  a  pig  that  is  neat  in  the  head,  light  in  the  neck 


442  APPENDIX 

and  shoulders,  deep  in  the  heart,  thick  in  the  loin,  stout  in 
the  thighs,  and  short  in  the  legs" — the  reason  being  that 
changes  in  the  curing  trade  and  pork  market  have  resulted 
in  certain  parts  of  the  animal  being  of  greater  value  per 
pound  than  other  parts.  The  shoulder  and  neck  being  of 
least  value,  it  is  shown  that  it  is  a  waste  of  food  substance 
to  transform  it  into  flesh  of  inferior  quality,  if  by  selecting 
animals  with  tendencies  to  greater  development  in  the  more 
valuable  parts  a  greater  amount  of  material  on  the  higher 
division  of  the  scale  of  market  values  can  be  produced. 

Points  Applicable  to  Most  British  Breeds  of  Sheep. — 1.  A 
graceful  carriage  and  springy  style  of  walking. 

2.  A  characteristic  head  with  good  depth  and  strength  of 
jaw,  and  breadth  across  the  bridge  of  the  nose,  and  full, 
bright  eyes,  indicating  both  docility  and  courage. 

3.  The  neck  thick  toward  the  trunk,  tapering  to  the  head, 
arching  slightly,  and  not  too  short. 

4.  The  chest  broad,  deep,  and  projecting  well  over  the 
forelegs,  and  descending  from  the  neck  in  a  perpendicular 
line. 

5.  The  back  level  and  broad  behind  and  before  (except 
in  the  Cheviots  and  Lonks,  which  have  sharp  shoulder-tops 
or  withers),  with  a  uniform  covering  of  flesh,  not  boggy,  but 
to  the  touch  firm  and  muscular;  under  and  upper  lines 
straight. 

6.  The  ribs  well  sprung,  rounded  and  deep. 

7.  The  shoulders  well  laid  and  covered  with  firm  flesh. 
The  regions  immediately  behind  the  shoulders  filled  up. 

8.  The  thighs  and  gigots  and  also  the  arms  and  the  fore- 
flanks  fleshed  well  down. 

9.  The  rump  or  part  near  the  dock  well  developed,  though 
not  too  large,  as  is  sometimes  the  case  in  Cotswolds,  Border 
Leicesters,  and  other  heavy-fleshed  breeds. 

10.  The  quarters  long  and  not  drooping  behind,  and  the 
spaces  between  them  and  the  last  ribs  short. 

11.  The  legs  straight  and  set  well  apart,  not  too  long;  the 
bone  clean  and  fine,  and  neither  coarse  nor  deficient;  the 
hocks  are  much  better  shghtly  out  than  at  all  in  or  "cow- 
hocked." 


MARKET  GRADES  AND  CLASSES  443 

12.  The  characteristic  wool  of  the  special  breed  covering 
well  the  body,  and  particularly  the  belly;  also  the  scrotum 
of  the  ram. 

MARKET  GRADES  AND  CLASSES. 

The  most  intelligent  producer  of  live  stock  should  have  a 
knowledge  concerning  the  various  grades  and  classes  of  live 
stock  which  fulfil  market  requirements.  Very  often  a  pro- 
ducer of  stock,  on  account  of  his  lack  of  knowledge  con- 
cerning these  problems,  does  not  receive  the  maximum  price 
for  his  product.  In  studying  this  problem  a  clear  distinc- 
tion should  be  made  between  classes  and  grades.  A  class 
represents  some  special  type  of  animal  designated  for  a 
specific  purpose.  The  term  grade  should  be  construed  as 
indicating  the  degree  of  perfection  attained  as  compared 
with  the  standard  for  the  class.  For  example,  in  cattle  the 
market  classes  are  beef  cattle,  butcher  stock,  canners  and 
cutters,  stockers  and  feeders,  veal  calves,  Texas  and  Western 
range  cattle,  and  distille^rs,  the  latter  two  constituting  sub- 
classes. The  miscellaneous  classes  include  baby  beef,  export 
cattle,  shipping  steers,  dressed  beef  cattle  and  stags.  Each 
of  the  above  main  classes  is  then  subdivided  into  prime, 
choice,  good,  medium,  common  and  inferior  grades.  These 
represent  the  principal  market  distinctions.  In  certain 
classes  there  are  additional  grades,  such  as  fancy  selected; 
this  term  being  used  in  designating  feeder  cattle. 

The  division  by  classes  is  based  on  use  and  into  grades 
on  conformity  to  this  use  or  purpose.  The  designation  by 
grades  is  based  on  weight,  quality,  conformation,  maturity 
and  condition.  Horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  sw^ine  are  all  so 
classed  and  graded,  although  there  are  certain  specific  mar- 
ket terms  which  are  used  in  designating  each  of  the  classes 
and  grades  fixed  by  different  market  requirements. 


INDEX. 


Aberdeex-Angus,    nativitj'    and 
description  of,  249 
standard  of  excellence  and  scale 
of  points,  250,  251 
Action,  48,  97 
defects  of,  219 
of  draft  horse,  116 
examination  of,  110 
of  hea\'>'  harness  horse,  135 
of  jacks  and  jennets,  184 
of  mules,  200 
Adaptation,  72 

of  Angora  goat,  422 
Age,   determination   of,   in   cattle, 
241,  242 
in  horse,  105 
in  sheep,  361 
in  swine,  320 
limitations,  75 

of  mules,  195 
of  sheep  at  maturity,  375 
of  swine  at  maturity,  321,  326 
classification,  320 
American  jack,  description  of,  191 
Guernsey  Cattle  Club  Notes,  295 
Merino,  characteristics  of,  411 
Saddle     Horse,    description    of, 
157,  158,  159 
Association,  100 

requirements   for   Ameri- 
Saddle  Horse,  158 
Standardbred,     description     of, 
150,  151,  152 
official  standards,  152,  153 
Andalusian  jack,  nativity  and  de- 
scription of,  188 
Angora  goats,  adaptation  of,  422 
breed  and  sex  characteristics 
of,  421 


Angora  goats,  constitution  of,  419 

fleece  of,  421 

form  of,  419 

general  appearance  of,  418 

importance  of,  418 

purpose  of,  418 

quality  of,  419 

standard    of    excellence    and 
scale  of  points  of,  422 

uses  of,  418 
Appendix,  429-443 
Ass,  182.    See  Jacks  and  Jennets. 
Auction  rules,  438 
Ayrshire,  72 

nativity  and  charactefistics  of, 

302  " 
standard  of  excellence  and  scale 

of  points,  303-305 


B 


Bacon  hog,  form  of,  59 

tYY>G,  350 
Beef  cattle,  breed  characteristics, 
of,  246-256 

brief  description  of,  439,  440 

capacity  of,  233 

class    characteristics    of,  264- 
268 

condition  of,  233 

conformation  of,  226 

constitution  of,  229 

coordination     of     bone     and 
muscle  of,  225 

determination  of  age  of,  241 

dressing  percentages  of,  234 

fleshing  qualities  of,  228 

indications  of  quality  of,  228 

industry,  evolution  and  impor- 
tance of,  221 

(445) 


446 


INDEX 


Beef  cattle,  marbling  of  meat  of, 
235 
nervous  development  of,  230 
percentage  of  different  cuts  of 

beef  of,  237 
products  and  their  uses,  223 
relation  of  structure  to  high- 
priced  cuts,  223 
score  card  of,  246 
weight  and  maturity  of,  231 
dressing  percentages  of,  234 
marbling  of,  235 

percentage  of  different  cuts  of, 
237 
Belgian,  nativity  and  characteris- 
tics of,  121,  122,  123 
Berkshire,  nativity  and  character- 
istics of,  332 
standard  of  excellence  and  scale 
of  points,  334 
BibUography,  426-428 
Blemishes    decrease  value  of  ani- 
mal, 50 
definition  of,  51 
not  transmitted,  51 
one  class  of  defects,  50 
Block  tests,  85 
Bog  spavins,  215 

Bone  and  muscle,  coordination  of, 
225 
indicates  quality,  62,  115 
quality  of,   indicated  by  canon 

bone,  93,  95 
size  of,  indicates  scale,  29 
Bony  growths,  213 
Breed  character,  70 

characteristics  of  Angora  goat, 
421 
of  beef  cattle,  246-256 
of  dairy  cattle,  290-311 
of  draft  horses,  118-128 
of  dual  purpose  cattle,  256-264 
of  heavy  harness  horses,  136- 

145 
of  jacks  and  jeimets,  186-192 
of  light  harness  horses,   150- 

153 
of  ponies,  169-173 
of  saddle  horses,  157-161 
of  sheep,  385-407,  411-416 
of  swine,  332-350 
selection,  81 
Breeder,  attributes  of,  425 
two  classes  of,  78 


Breeders'  fads,  87 
Breeding   animals,    conformity   to 
breed  type,  268 

constitution  and  vigor  of,  269 

form  of,  176,  268 

qualifications  of,  70 

quality  of,  176 

sex  characteristics  of,  178,  270 

temperament  of,  177,  269 
attributes,  175 
classes  of  sheep,  416 
condition,  69 
requisites,   268,   314,   358 
test,  73 
Breeds,  beef  cattle,  246 
draft  horses,  118 
dual  purpose,  256 
factors     contributing     to     their 

origin,  18 
heavy  harness  horses,  136 
horses,  classification.  111 
jacks,  186 

light  harness  horses,  136 
ponies,  169 
saddle  horses,  157 
sheep,  385 
swine,  332 
Brown  Swiss,  characteristics  of,  306 

standard    of    excellence    and 
scale  of  points  of,  307 


Cab  horse,  description  of,  145 
Calves,  characteristics  of,  267 
Canter,  description  of,  100 
Capacity  of  beef  cattle,  233 
of  dairy  animal,  280 
how  determined  and  developed, 65 
indicated    by    milk    and    butter 

standards,  281 
of  mutton  sheep,  374 
of  swine,  325 
Carcass  of  swine,  uses  of,  319,  350 
Catalonian  jack,  nativity  and  de- 
scription of,  187 
Cavalry  horse,  characteristics  of, 
164 
specifications       of      Quarter- 
master-General for,    165 
Cheshire,  characteristics  of,  348 
standard  of  excellence  and  scale 
of  points  of,  348 


INDEX 


447 


Chester  White,  characteristics  of, 

340 
Cheviot,   characteristics  of,  399 
standard  of  excellence  and  scale 
of  points  of,  401 
Chunk,  classes  of,  131 
description  of,  131 
Circulatory  system,  affects  elabora- 
tion of  milk,  30,  31,  271 
importance  of,  30 
Class  characteristics  of  beef  cattle, 
264-268 
of  dairy  cattle,  313-314 
of  draft  horses,  128 
of  heavy  harness  horses,  145 
of  light   harness  horses,  153- 

155 
of  mules,  205-210 
of  ponies,  173-175 
of  sheep,  416-418 
of  swine,  358-360 
Classes  of  beef  cattle,  264 
of  dairy  cattle,  313 
of  draft  horses,  128 
of  heavy  harness  horses,  145 
of  horses,  111 

of  light  harness  horses,  153,  155 
of  mules,  205 
of  ponies,  173 
of  saddle  horses,  161 
of  sheep,  416 
of  swine,  360 
Classification  of  horses,  110 

of  light  horses,  133 
Cleveland  Bay,  description  of,  141- 

145 
Clydesdale,  nativity  and  descrip- 
tion of,  123 
Coach  horse,  description  of,  145 
Cob,  description  of,  145 
Color  of  Guernsey,  296 

of  jacks,  184 
Colts  and  fillies,  180 
Combination  horse,  description  of, 

161,  162 
Condition,  definition  of,  68,  69,  70 
for  breeding,  69 
for  market,  68 
indicates  healthfulness,  80 
of  ass,  183 
of  beef  cattle,  233 , 
of  mules,  199 
of  mutton  sheep,  374 
of  swine,  326,  353 


Conformation  of  beef  animals,  226 
Constitution  and  vigor  of  Angora 
goat,  419 
associated  with  endurance  or 

durability,  115,  149 
of  beef  animals,  229 
of  beef  breeding  cattle,  269 
of  dairy  animals,  279 
of  Guernsey,  296 
of  horses,  draft,  115 
how  determined,  63 
importance    of,    in    breeding 

animals,  63 
of  mutton  sheep,  373 
of  swine,  325 
Cotswold,  nativity  and  character- 
istics of,  389 
standard  of  excellence  and  scale 
of  points  of,  390 
Cotton  mules,  description  of,  209 
Craig  quotation,  22 
Cribbing,  53 

indicated  by  condition  of  teeth, 
217 
Cross  firing,  220 

Cruikshank,  Amos,  plan  of  breed- 
ing, 77 
CuUing  herds,  72 

inferior  animals,  55 
Curb,  216 


Dairy  cattle,  breed  characteristics 
of,  290-311 

breeding  requisites  of,  314 

capacity  of,  280 

as   indicated  by   milk  and 
butter  standards,  281 

class    characteristics   of,  313- 
314 

classes  of,  313 

constitution  of,  279 

durability  and  persistency  of, 
284 

form  of,  273 

function  of,  274 

mammary  system  of,  282 

nervous  temperament  of,  280 

purpose  of,  271 

quality  of,  277 

score  card  of,  289 

structural  form  and  examina- 
tion of,  284-289 


448 


INDEX 


Dairy    cattle,   wedges  of,  59,  274, 
276,  277,  278 
classes,  calves,  314 

heifer  development,  313 
mature  form,  313 
form  of,  273 
function  of,  274 

correlation  with  other  factors 
of,  275 
records  measure  productiveness 
of,  82,  83,  85 
are  reUable  when  covering  long 
period,  83 
temperament  of  Guernsey,  296 
Deafness,  indicated  by  lack  of  ear 

movement,  217 
Deception  from  trimming,  375 
Decisions,  uniformity  of,  44 
Defects,  exterior,  classified,  50 

in  way  of  going,  219 
Delaine  Merino,  characteristics  of, 
413 
standard    of    excellence    and 
scale  of  points  of,  414 
Detailed  structural  form  of  beef 
animal,  242 
of  dairy  animal,  284-289 
of  horse,  100 
of  mules,  201 
of  sheep,  365 
of  swine,  329-331 
Devons,  nativity  and  characteris- 
tics of,  262 
standard  of  excellence  and  scale 
of  points  of,  263 
Digestive  system,  factors  indicat- 
ing a  strong,  30 
importance  of,  30 
Disease  of  frog,  218 
Dorset  Horn,  characteristics  of,  402 
standard    of    excellence    and 
scale  of  points  of,  403 
Draft  animals,  breeds  of  horses,  118 
conformation  of,  113 
group  or  type  of,  113 
temperament  or  nervous  de- 
velopment of,  67 
mules,  description  of,  205 
or  short  leet,  56 
Drafter,  description  of,  128,  129 
Di'essing  percentages  of  cattle,  234 

of  swine,  327,  328,  329 
Dual  purpose  breeds,  256 
Durability  of  dairy  animal,  284 


Durabilitj'  of  light  harness  horse, 

149 
Duroc-Jersey,     characteristics    of, 
339 
scale  of  points  of,  340 
Dutch  Belted,  nativity  and  char- 
acteristics of,  308 
standard    of    excellence    and 
scale  of  points  of,  310 
Dwelling,  220 


E 


Ears  of  horses,  jacks,  jennets  and 

mules,  216 
Endurance  associated  with  consti- 
tution, 115,  149 

of  mules,  200 

or  speed  records,  85 
Essex,  characteristics  of,  347 
EstabUshed  herds,  82 
Expresser,  description  of,  132 

overlaps  other  classes,  112 
Eyes,  description  of,  217 

indicate  certain  characters,  217 


Fads  of  breeders,  87 

Farm  mules,  description  of,  206 

Fat  cattle,  characteristics  of,  264 

hog,  form  of,  59 

production,  dependent  upon  ner- 
vous development,  32 

sheep  and  lambs,  characteristics 
of,  417 

type  of  swine,  320 
Feeders,    characteristics    of,    265, 

360,  418 
Feet,  diseases  of,  218 
Fine- wool  breeds,  385,  411 
Fistula,  location  and  detection  of, 

218,  434 
Fleece,  Angora,  421 

characteristics  of,  377 

lustre  of,  381 

method  of  examination  of,  378 

puritj^  of,  381 

quality  of,  379 

quantity  of,  380 

soundness  of,  383 

types  of,  377 


INDEX 


449 


Fleece,  variation  in,  384 

yolk  of,  381 
Form  of  Angora  goat,  419 

of  ass,  183 

of  bacon  hog,  59,  60,  352,  353 

of  beef  cattle,  226 

of  breeding  cattle,  268 
horses,  176 

of  dairy  cow,  59,  273,  276,  277 

of  draft  horse,  113 

of  horse,  detailed  structural,  100 

of  light  harness  horse,  147 

of  meat  animals,  58,  59,  60 

of  mules,  197 

of  mutton  sheep,  371 

relation  of,  to  utility,  95 

of  speed  animals,  59,  60 

of  swine,  322,  350,  352 

of  wool  sheep,  60 
Forging,  219,  434 
Fox  trot  described,  100 
Framework  affects  development  of 
digestive  system,  30 
muscular  development,  29 

compared  with  that  of  man,  91 

determines  scale,  28,  29 

of  swine,  317 

of  young  animal,  181 
French    Canadian,    characteristics 
of,  308 

Coach,  nativity  and  description 
of,  136 

Draft,  120.     See  Percheron. 
Fundamental     considerations     in 

judging  horses,  89 


Gallop  described,  100 

Galloway,  nativity  and  character- 
istics of,  254 
points  to  be  avoided  in,  255 
standard  of  excellence  of,  255 

Gaited  saddle  horse,  163 

Gaits,  description  of,  98,  99,  100 
of  gaited  saddle  horse,  1 63 
of  speed  or  race  horse,  153 
of  walk-trot-canter  horse,  163 

Gaskin,  a  guide  to  muscular  devel- 
opment, 93 

Gay,  62,  91,  97,  112,  219 

General  appearance,  58 
29 


German   Coach,  nativity  and   de- 
scription of,   137,  138 
Glossary  of  horse  and  mule  market 

terms,  431 
Goats,  Angora,  418 
Guernsey,    explanatory    notes    by 
American     Guernsey     Cattle 
Club,  295-297 
nativity  and  characteristics  of, 

293 
standard  of  excellence  and  scale 
of  points  of,  294-295 


Hackney,    nativity   and   descrip- 
tion of,  139-141 
pony,    description   and   require- 
ments of,  173 
Halter  pulling,  53 
Hampshire    hog,    disqualifications 
of,  346 
nativity  and  characteristics  of, 

343 
standard    of    excellence    and 
scale  of  points  of,  344 
sheep,  characteristics  of,  393 
standard    of    excellence    and 
scale  of  points  of,  394 
Handling,  amount  of,  49 
animals,  49 

generally  undesirable,  47 
quality,  how  determined,  49 
to  determine  mammary  develop- 
ment, 49 
Healthfulness,  80 
Heaves,  indications  of,  217 
Heavy    harness    group    or    type^ 
action  of,  135 
breed    characteristics    of, 

136 
general     description     of, 

133,  134 
market  and  show  classes 

of,  136 
quality  of,  134 
temperament  of,  134 
Height  of  horse,  how  measured,  60 

Shetland  pony,  61 
Herd  improvement,  423 

use  of  pure-bred  sire  in,  423 
records,  82 
uniformitv,  71 


450 


INDEX 


Hereford,  characteristics  of,  252 
standard  of  excellence  and  scale 
of  points  of,  253 
Holstein-Friesian,  72 

disqualifications    for    advanced 

registry,  302 
nativity  and  characteristics  of, 

298 
stantlard  of  excellence  and  scale 
of  points  of,  299-301 
Hoof,  description  of  normal,  218 

diseases  and  defects  of,  218 
Horns,  indication  of  age  by,  242 
Horse,  detailed  structural  form  of, 
100 
examination  for  faults,  211 

in  stable,  53 
fundamental     considerations    in 

judging,  89 
mechanical  structure  of,  92 
propelling  power  of,  96 
relation   of  bone   and   muscular 

development   of,   92,   96 
tests  for  unsoundness  and  vices 
in,  53,  108,  109 
Horses,    breed    characteristics    of, 
118-128,    136-145,    150,    157- 
161 
classification  of,  110,  111 
examination  of,  in  harness,  218 
Hunter,  requirements  for,  164 


Individuaijty  and  pedigree,  76 

how  determined,  63 

or  thrift,  74 
Interfering,  219 
Ifalian  jack,  description  of,  190 


Jacks  and  jennets,  breed  charac- 
teristics of,  186 

color  of,  184 

description  of  American,  191 

form,  scale,  and  quality  of, 
183 

general  appearance  of,   182 

nervous  development  of,  184 

score  card  for,  186 

selection  of,  185 


Jacks  and  jennets,  sex  character- 
istics of,  184 

soundness   and    condition    of, 
183 

structure  of,  182 

style  and  action  of,  184 

uses  of,  185 
Jersej%    nativity   and    characteris- 
tics of,  290 
standard  of  excellence  and  scale 

of  points  of,  291 
Judging  Angora  goats,  418 

application  of,  to  improvement, 

423 
beef  and  dual  purpose  cattle,  221 
breeding  classes,  horses,  175 
by  comparison,  41,  43 
colts  and  fillies,  180 
consideration  of  fads  in,  87,  88 
dairy  cattle,  271 
as  distinguished  from  selection, 

36,  52 
definition  of,  35 
draft  horses,  113 
factors  and  pi'inciples  applicable 

to,  57 
horses,  89 

importance  of  keen,  19 
jacks,  jennets,  and  mules,  182 
light  horses,  133 
methods  and  practices  in,  35 

by  purchaser,  108 
objects  of,  36 

relation  of  structure  to,  24-27 
requires     wide     knowledge     of 

animals,  36,  37,  425 
requirements  for,  22,  23,  37,  42- 

44 
sheep,  361 
should  be  prompt  and  thorough, 

54   55 
in  show  ring,  41,  108,  109 
swine,  317 

use  of  ideals  and  standards  in, 
37-39,  42-45 

of  score  card  in,  38,  39 

of  S3'^stem  in,  46 


Kerry,  nativity  and  characteris- 
tics of,  310 
scale  of  points  of,  311 


INDEX 


451 


Lameness,  causes  of,  214,  215,  216 
detection  of,  in  horses,  108 
locating,  213 
Large  Yorkshire,  characteristics  of, 
355 
standard  excellence  and  scale 
of  points  of,  356 
Leicester,  characteristics  of,  387 
standard  of  excellence  and  scale 
of  points  of,  388 
Light     harness     group     or     tjT^e, 
breeds  of,  150 
classes  of,  150 
conformation  of,  147,  148, 

149 
durability  of,  149 
quality  of,  149 
temperament  of,  149 
two    distinct     types    of, 
147 
Lincoln,  nativity  and  characteris- 
tics of,  385 
standard  of  excellence  and  scale 
of  points  of,  387 
Lineage  of  animals,  79 
Live  stock  industry,  field  of  devel- 
opment of,  18 
method  of  development  of, 

17,  18 
possibilities  of,  21 
judging,  defined,  35 
shows,  importance  of,  426 
value  of,  20 
Logger,  description  of,  129 
Long-wool  breeds,  385 
Lymphatic   temperament   of   beef 
animals,  67-68 
of  draft  animals,  67 


M 

Maltese  jack,   nativity  and  de- 
scription of,  189 
Mammary   organs   of   dairy   cow, 
282-284 
of  special  importance  in  dairy 

animals,  31 
use  of  hands  in  judging  devel- 
opment of,  49 
system,  282,  288 
veins  in  dairy  cow,  283,  288 


Majorca  jack,  nativity  and  descrip- 
tion of,  190 
Marbhng  of  meat,  235 
Market  classes  of  mules,  205 
of  sheep,  361 
of  wool,  383 
condition,  68 
grades  and  classes,  443 
value  of  swine,  bacon,  354 
Maturity,   age  of,  in  beef  cattle, 
231 
in  different  animals,  77 
in  mutton  sheep,  375 
in  swine,  326 
Measuring  height  of  horse,  60 
Medium- wool  breeds,  385,  391 
Merino  sheep,  60 
American,  411 
Delaine,  characterics  of,  413 
standard    of    excellence    and 
scale  of  points  of,  414 
Middle   Yorkshire,   characteristics 

of,  346 
Milk  production  dependent  upon 

nervous  development,  32 
Mining  mules,  description  of,  208 
Mule  mares,  quahfications  of,  203 
-foot   swine,    characteristics    of, 
349 
scale  of  points  of,  350 
Mules,  age  limitations  of,   195 
condition  of,  199 
cotton,  209 
draft,  205 
farm,  206 
general  conformation  of,  197 

requirements  of,  193 
height  and  weight  of,  195 
market  classes  of,  205 
mining,  208 
quahty  of,  198 
score  card  for,  203 
soundness  of,  200 
structural   form    and    qualifica- 
tions of,  201 
style  and  action  of,  200 
sugar,  207 
temperament  and  endurance  of, 

200 
uses  and  adaptation  of,  193 
Muscular     development    depends 
upon  bony  framework,  28 
of  different  parts  should   be 
correlated,  96 


.452 


INDEX 


Muscular  development,  relation  of 
bone  to,  92,  93,  225,  226 
value    of    animals    dependent 
upon,  29 
Mutton    type,    characteristics    of, 
371-377 


N 


Natural  thrift,  74 
Nerve  cutting,  52 
Nervous  development  of  ass,  184 
of  beef  cattle,  230 
characterization  of,  32 
controls  temperament,  68 
correlation   with   other   func- 
tions, 32,  97 
indicates    use    and    value    of 

animal,  32,  33 
in  different  classes  of  animals, 
32,  67 
temperament    of    dairy    breeds, 
67,  280,  281 
indicates  endurance,  97 

milk  production,  67 
of  speed  horses,  67 
Norman,  120.    See  Percheron. 
Nostrils,  description  of,  217 


Official  standard  of  the  American 
Trotting    Register    Association, 
152 
O.  I.  C.  swine,  characteristics  of, 
341 
standard    of    excellence    and 
scale  of  points  of,  341 
Open  joint,  215 

Operations    prastised    to   improve 
show  condition,  51 
should  be  discriminated  against, 
51-52 
Oxford,  characteristics  of,  397 
standard  of  excellence  and  scale 
of  points  of,  399 


Pace  described,  100 
Pacing  standard,  152,  153 
Paddling,  219 


Pampered  condition,  69 

Park  horse,  145 

Parrot   mouth,    217,   435 

Pedigree  and  individuality,  76 
not  all  important,  74,  75 
should  be  considered,  78,  79 

Percentage    of    different    cuts    in 
swine,  327,  328,  329 

Percheron,    nativity   and   descrip- 
tion of,  118-121 

Persistency  of  dairy  animal,  284 

Point  of  approach,  46,  47 

Pointing,  220 

Poitou  jack,  nativity  and  descrip- 
tion of,  188 

Poland-China,  disqualifications  of, 
338 
nativity  and  characteristics  of, 

334 
standard    of    excellence    and 
scale  of  points  of,  336-338 

Polled  Durham,   breed  character- 
istics of,  247,  248 

Polo   ponies,    description   and   re- 
quirements of,  173 

Ponies  between  11-2  and  14-2,  175 
description  of,  173 
under  46  inches,  174 

Pony,  breeds  of,  169 
classes,  of,  173 
group  or  type  of,  169 

Position  of  animals  for  judging,  45 

Pounding,  220 

Prepotency,  definition  of,  74 
of  Guernsey,  297 

Productiveness,  74 

Propelling  power,  96 

Pure-bred  live   stock  associations, 
429     ■ 


Quality  of  Angora  goat,  419 
fleece,  421 
of  breeding  animals,   176 
of  dairy  animals,  277 
of  draft  horse,  114,  115 
of  fleece,  379 

of  heavy  harness  horse,  134 
how  determined,  62 
indications  of,  in  beef  cattle,  228 

in  horses,  draft,  114,  115 
of  light  harness  horse,  149 
of  mules,  198 


INDEX 


453 


Quality  of  mutton  sheep,  373 

of  swine,  323,  351 
Quantity  of  fleece,  380 


Rack  described,  100 
Rambouillet,  characteristics  of,  415 
Red    Polled,    disqualifications    of, 
260,  261 
nativity    and    characteristics 

of,  258 
standard    of    excellence    and 
scale  of  points  of,  259,  261 
Registry     associations,    pure-bred 

live  stock,  429 
Regularity  of  breeding,  74 
Reproductive  system  affects  value 

of  animals,  31,  32 
Reynolds,  M.  H.,  211 
Ringbone,  location  and  effect  of, 

214,  436 
Roadster,  description  of,  153,  155 
Roaring,  53 
RoUing,  220 

Romney,  nativity  and  character- 
istics of,  403 
Rudimentary    teats   of   Guernsey, 

297 
Rimabout    horse,    description    of, 

112,  145 
Running  horse,  description  and  re- 
quirements of,  167,  168 
walk  described,  100 


S 


Saddle  group  or  tj^pe,  breeds  of, 

157 
Scale  of  ass,  183 

determined  by  bony  framework, 

28 
fixed  by  height  and  weight,  61 
at  maturity,  29 
of  mules,  195 
Scalping,  220,  436 
Score  card  for  bacon  swine,  354 
carcass  determination,  351 
for  beef  cattle,  246 
for  dairy  cattle,  289 
for  draft  horses,  117 
for  fat  swine,  332 


Score  card  for  fine- wool  sheep,  410 

for  heavy  harness  horses,  146 

for  jacks,  186 

for  light  harness  horses,  155, 
156 

for  mules,  203 

for  mutton  sheep,  384 

for  saddle  horses,  168 

for  Shetland  ponies,  171 

use  of,  38,  39 
Selection  of  a  breed,  81 

as  distinguished  from  judging,  36 
factors  and  principles  of,  57 
importance  of,  19 
of  a  jack,  185 
possibihties  of,  21,  22 
suggestions  on,  78 
Sex  characteristics  of  Angora  goat, 
421 

of  ass,  184 

of  breeding  cattle,  270 
horses,  178 

of  swine,  359 
Sheep,    breed    characteristics    of, 

385-407,  411-416 
breeding  classes  of,  416 
capacity  of,  374 
class  requirements  of,  416-418 
condition  of,  374 
constitution  of,  373 
deception  by  trimming  of,  375 
determination  of  age  of,  361 
examination  of,  50,  365 
fat,  417 
feeder,  418 

fine- wool  breeds  of,  411 
fleece  characteristics  of,  377 
form  of,  371,  407 
market  classes  of,  361 
maturity  of,  375 
mutton  type  of,  371 
points  applicable  to  most  British 

breeds  of,  442 
purpose  of,  361 
quality  of,  373,  409 
score  card  for  mutton  type,  384 

for  fine- wool  type,  410 
types  of,  385 
use  of  products  of,  361 
variation  in  fleece  of,  384 
weight  of,  371 
Shetland,  61,  169 

description  and  requirements  of, 

169,  170 


454 


INDEX 


Shetland,  score  card  for,  171 
Shire,  nativity  and  description  of, 

125 
Shoe  boil,  216,  436 
Shorthorn,   dual    purpose   charac- 
teristics of,  256 
nativity  and  description  of,  246 
Short  leet,  56 

Shoulders,  examination  of,  218 
Shropshire,  characteristics  of,  391 
standard  of  excellence  and  scale 
of  points  of,  393 
Sidebones,  214,  436 
Small  Yorkshire,  characteristics  of, 

346 
Soundness  of  ass  and  mule,  183 
general  examination  for,  212 
of  mules,  200 
relation  of,  to  utility,  211 
Southdown,  characteristics  of,  395 
standard  of  excellence  and  scale 
of  points  of,  397 
Spavin,  214,  215 
Speed  or  race  horse,  153 

records  the  result  of  breeding,  85 
Speedy  cutting,  220,  437 
Splints,  213,  214,  437 
Standardbred.    See  American  stan- 

dardbred. 
Stockers,  267 

Structure  analogous  with  that  of 
man,  91 
of  ass,  182 
of  swine,  317 

relation  of,   to  animal  judging, 
24-27 
to  high-prcied  cuts,  223 
Structural  form  of  beef  cattle,  242 
of  dairy  animal,  284-289 
of  horse,  100 
of  mules,  201 
of  swine,  329-331 
Style  and  action  of  draft  horse,  116 
of  jacks  and  jennets,  184 
of  mules,  200 
Sub-class  of  horses.  111 
Substance,  definition  of,  62 
Suffolk  horse,  nativity  and  char- 
acteristics of,  127-128 
sheep,  characteristics  of,  405 
Sugar  mules,  207 
Sussex,   nati^^ty  and   characteris- 
tics, 256 
Sweeney,  218,  437 


Swine,  age  of,  determination  of,  320 

of  classes,  320 

at  maturity,  326 

weight  of  fat,  321 
bacon  type  of,  350 
breed  characteristics  of,  332,  355 
breeding   and   feeding   capacity 
of,  325 

requisites  of,  358 
carcass  of,  uses  of,  319,  350 
class  characteristics  of,  358,  360 
constitation  and  vigor  of,  325 
details  of  form  of,  329-331 
dressing  percentage  of,  327-329 
fat  type  of,  320 
form   or   conformation   of,   322, 

352,  353 
general  considerations  of,  320 
indications  and  value  of  quality 

of,  323,  351 
meaning  and  value  of  condition 

of,  326,  353 
market  value  of,  353,  354 
maturity  of,  326 
percentage  of  cuts  of,  327-329 
points  applicable  to  all  breeds  of, 

440-442 
purpose  and  method  of  use  of, 

319,  350 
score  card  for  bacon,  354 

for  fat,  332 
sex  characteristics  of,  359 
structure  of,  317 
type  classification  of,  320 
weight  of  bacon  type  of,  351 
Symmetry,  66 
Synovial  sacs,  215 
System,  use  of,  in  judging,  46 


Tamworth,  60 

characteristics  of,  357 
standard  of  excellence  of,  358 
Teeth,  "bishoping"  of,  52,  105 
disappearance  of  cups  in,  108 
how  to  determine  age  by,  105 
indicate  age  of  beef  cattle,  241, 
242 
of  sheep,  361,  363 
normal  and  abnormal  condition 

of,  217 
order  of  appearance  of,  107 


INDEX 


455 


Teeth,  temporary  or  milk,  106 
Temperament  of  breeding  cattle, 
269 
horses,  177 

of  dairy  cow,  67,  2S0 

definition  of.  67 

depends  upon  nervous  develop- 
ment, 32,  67 

of  draft  animals,  67,  116 

of  Guernsey,  296 

of  heavj^  harness  horse,  134 

indicates  use  an  I  value,  32 

of  light  harness  horse,  149 

of  mules,  200 

of  speed  animals,  67 
Thoroughbred,    breeding   and    de- 
scription of,  159-161 
Thoroughpins,  215,  437 
Trappv,  220 
Trot  described,  9S-99 
Trotting  standard,  152 
Tuberculin  test  by  purchaser,  SI 
Tuberculosis,  81 
Tunis,  characteristics  of,  406 
Type  of  breeding  animals,  26S 
Tj'pes  of  horses.  111,  112 

of  light  horses,  133 

of  ponies,  169 

of  sheep,  371,  385,  407 

of  swine,  320 

of  wool,  377 


Udder  of  dair^'  cow,  283 
Unsoundness  affects  value  of  horse, 
89 
definition  of,  211 
detection  of,  49,  108 
examination  for,  211 
may  be  transmitted,  51 
one  of  common  defects,  50 
recovery  from,  51 
Utility,  relation  of  form  to,  95 

soundness  to,  211 
Utilization  of  beef  cattle  products, 
223 
of  sheep  products,  361 


Vices,  detection  of,  in  horse,  109 
Victoria,  characteristics  of,  347 


W 

Walk  described,  98 
Walk-trot-canter    horse,     descrij)- 

tion  of,  162,  163 
Weaving,  53 
Wedge  shape  of  glairy  cow,  59,  273, 

276,  277,  278 
Weight,  60 

of  bacon  swine,  351 

a   factor   in    determining   scale, 
61 

of  mutton  sheep,  371 
Welsh  ponies,  description  and  n^- 

quirements  of,  171-173 
Whistling,  53 
Wind  puffs,  215 

sucking,  53 
Winding,  219 
Winging,  219,  437 
Withers,    troubles    affecting,    217, 

218 
Wool,  clothing,  383 

combing  384 

delaine,  384 

lustre  of,  381 

market  classification  of,  383 

purit}'  of,  381 

qualitv  of,  379 

quantity  of,  380 

soundness  of,  383 

t>'pes  of,  377 

yolk  of,  381 


Young   stock,    characteristics   of, 

360 
Yorkshire,    Large,    60,    355.       See 

■Middle    Yorkshire,    and     Small 

Yorkshire,  346. 


